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Shammai THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 386 9hebna in which, however, the shaman has full confidence. As with the fetish priests, some shamans are special ists, confining their activities to particular domains, as the healing of cattle. A belief in sympathetic magic (see COMPARATIVE RELIGION, VI., 1, a, § 5) is a normal accompaniment of shamanism. The shaman may come to his powers either by prenatal endowment derived from an ancestor, by gift from a favoring spirit, especially one seen in the puberty watch, or from training by an experi enced practitioner. Upon the shaman his profes sion entails a crude morality, since the control of the spirits is not easy and imposes rules of conduct which the shaman must observe. These frequently include a sort of asceticism, anticipating that prin ciple in the religious development of a later stage of culture. GEO. W. GILMORE. BIBLIOGRAPHY: For the western continent a thesaurus of materials is found in the Reports of the Bureau of Amer ican Ethnology, an annual published by the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. Consult further: G. RoskoH, Dos Relipionaweaen der rohesten Naturoolker, Leipsic, 1880; W. Radloff, Das Schamanentum and sein %ultus, ib. 1885; Priklonskii, Dos Schamanentum der Jakuten, Vienna, 1888; T. Achelis, Moderns Vdlkerkunde, Stuttgart, 1896; Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Journal, xxxi (1901); J. Stadling, Through Siberia, London, 1901; C. Lumholtz, Unknown Mexico, New York, 1902; J. Sheepshanke, My Life in Mongolia and Siberia, London, 1903. SHAMMAI, aham'm6 or sham's-ai: Jewish rabbi of the first century B.c., contemporary and opponent of Hillel (q.v.). He appears to have been a Palestinian, a man of somewhat violent temper who yet realized his shortcoming, but also of great modesty. His religious views were strict even to severity. He founded a school antithetical to that of Hillei, and the proverb arose, "Hillel looses what Shammai binds." BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Graetz, Geachichte der Judder, iii. 213 214, 256, Leipsic, 1888 Z. Frankel, Hodopetica in Misch nam, pp. 39-40, ib. 1859; JE, xi. 230. SHANAAHAN, EDMUND THOMAS: Roman Catholic; b. in Boston, Mass., Nov. 22, 1868. He was educated at Boston College (A.B., 1888), the Roman Academy and Seminary and the College of the Propaganda, Rome (S.T.D., 1893), and the University of Louvain (1895). In 1894 he was instructor in philosophy and theology in the Amer ican College, Rome; associate professor of theology in the Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C. (1895-98). Since the latter year he has been Shakespeare-Caldwell professor of theology in the same institution, where he has also been dean of the faculty of theology since 1901. He was a lec turer before the American University Extension Society, Philadelphia, in 1897, and lecturer in philos ophy at the University of Pennsylvania in 1898-99. SHARP, GRANVILLE: English philanthropist; b. at Durham Nov. 10, 1735 (old style); d. at Ful ham, London, July 6, 1813. Disapproving of the government action relating to the American colonies he resigned his position in the ordnance office, July, 31, 1776, and devoted himself to study. Before this he became famous for his course in befriending and successfully defending the negro slave James Somersett from his master, which finally led to the momentous decision "that as soon as any slave sets
his foot upon English territory, he becomes free." He thenceforth devoted himself to the overthrow of slavery and the slave-trade. He conceived the idea of a colony for the liberated slaves, 1783, which afterward materialized in the settlement of Sierra Leone. During the last years of his life he took a prominent part in the founding of the British and Foreign Bible Society and was identified with a number of promotive societies. He was a good linguist and a pious man. He wrote, A Representation of the Injustice of Private Property in the Persons of 3len (London, 1769), followed by an Appendix (1772); A Declaration of the People's Natural Right to a Share in the Legislature (1774), in behalf of the American Colonies; and his chief later work, Remarks on the Uses of the Definitive Article in the Greek Text of the New Testament (Durham, 1798).
BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Hoare, Memoirs of Granville Sharp, London, 1820; J. Nichols, Literary Anecdotes of the 18th Century, 9 vols., ib. 1812-15; J. Stephen, Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography, 2 vols., 4th ed., London, 1860; DNB, li. 401-404.
SHARP, JAMES: Archbishop of St. Andrews; b. in the castle of Banff (40 m. n.n.w. of Aberdeen) May, 1618; assassinated on Magus Muir, near St. Andrews (31 m. n.e. of Edinburgh), May 3, 1679. He was educated at Aberdeen (M.A., 1637) ; in 16-10 was professor of philosophy in St. Leonard's College, St. Andrews; presented to the Church of Crail, 1618; was made a prisoner by Cromwell's forces and confined in the Tower, 1651-52; was chosen to plead the Presbyterian cause before the Protector, 1657; and when George Monk marched upon London, 1660, he was sent over to Charles II. at Breda, to secure the royal confirmation of "the government of the Church of Scotland, as it is settled by law., without violation," as well as of the act of the resolutioners. The former, of course, was understood in the Presbyterian sense. Sharp, being of the party of resolutioners and selected for his mediating position between Charles and the Presbyterians, was charged with duplicity and with finally betraying the latter for his own interests. At any rate, in 1661, the Scottish parliament annulled all the parliaments held since 1633, with all their proceedings, and thus totally abolished all the laws made in favor of the Presbyterian Church. The "Church of Scotland" thus became the old Episcopal Church; and Sharp, in Dec. 12, 1661, was in London consecrated archbishop of St. Andrews. With the zeal of a convert he persecuted his former allies. Invested with the title and style of primate of Scotland, he re-erected the court of high commission in 1664, which severely punished, some even with death, those who in any way interfered with the prelatical designs, and executed nine persons after the king had required the persecutions to cease. His perfidy and cruelty led to his assassination by a band of Covenanters who encountered the prelate's carriage while lying in wait for his chief agent, Carmichael.
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Life of James Sharp, Archbishop of St. Andrews . . . first printed in 1678, to which is added, an Account of his Death, by an Eye-Witness. Edinburgh, 1719; The Life of Mr. James Sharp . . . to his Instal- ment in the Archbishoprick of St. Andrews, ib. 1719; A True Account of the Life of . . . James Sharp, London, 1723; T. Stephen, Life and Times of Archbishop Sharp, ib. 1839; R. Keith, Historical Catalogue of the Scottish