of office and of strict adherence to party politics. His first humanitarian activity was directed to the alleviation of the situation of lunatics, the result of which was not only parliamentary regulation of the care of a class badly treated but the directing of the attention of medical men to sounder methods. He also secured legislation limiting the hours during which employees in mills and factories should be kept at work, and agitation covering over ten years was necessary to obtain the relief which finally came. Conditions in collieries and mines also attracted his attention, the awful conditions under which women and even tender children worked for eighteen hours being by him brought to the notice of parliament with the result that legislation eliminated the worst of the evils. The apprentices of the chimney sweeps labored under quite similar harsh conditions, and their situation was alleviated. The "ragged schools" were also benefited by his championship, and he was chairman of the Ragged School Union for thirtynine years. Under the stimulus of his exposure of lodging-house and other evils, conditions in these institutions and in the tenement houses were made much better. Besides the interests already mentioned, he was active in the counsels of the British and Foreign Bible Society, of which he was long president, in the London City Mission, in the Church Missionary Society, and in the Young Men's Christian Association. He was a faithful attendant of the Church of England, but his sympathies were with evangelicalism wherever found.

BIBIdoaRAPHY: E. Hodder, Life and Work of the Seventh Earl of Shaftesbury, 3 vols., London, 1888; G. H. Pike, Shaftesbury, His Life and Work, ib. 1894; The Good Earl: Career of the Seventh Lord Shaftesbury, ib. 1888; DNB, xii. 133-137.

SHAHAN, THOMAS JOSEPH: Roman Catholic; b. at Manchester, N. H., Sept. 11, 1857. He was educated at Montreal College, Montreal (1872-78), the American College, Rome (1878,82; D.D., College of the Propaganda, Rome, 1882), the University of Berlin (1889-91), the New Sorbonne and the Institut Catholique, Paris (1891). Ordained to the priesthood in 1882, he was chancellor and secretary of the diocese of Hartford, Conn. (1883-88), and since 1891 has been professor of church history and patristics at the Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C., also president since 1909. He likewise lectured on the history of education in the Catholic University Institute of Pedagogy, New York City, in 1902-03, and since 1895 has been editor of the Catholic University Bulletin. Besides being one of the editors of the Catholic Encyclopedia, he has written The Blessed Virgin in the Cata combs (Baltimore, 1892); Giovanni Battista de Rossi (New York, 1900); The Beginnings of Christianity (1903); The Middle Ages (1903); and The House of God, and other Addresses and Studies (1905).

SHALLUM, shal'Ium: Fifteenth king of Israel, successor of Zachariah whom he slew, thus ending the dynasty of Jehu. He reigned only a month, probably in the year 740 B.c. (though the old chronology placed him in 771), when be was himself slain by Menahem (q.v.), who seized the throne (II Kings xv. 10-15). A reference to this unsettled period is X.-25

seen by several commentators in Zech. xi. 8 (cf. J. F. McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments, i. 357, New York, 1894).

SHAMANISM, shd'man-izm: The name for a complex of practises and beliefs connected in some parts of the world with an animistic stage of culture. "Shaman" is of Hindu-Persian origin, and denotes "idolater." The term is much in need of redefinition, being used loosely and applied vaguely to usages which are properly placed under other heads. Shamanism is often defined as the "religion" of certain tribes, mainly Mongolian or Finno-Tataric, in northern Asia. The area thus indicated must be extended to America, where the medicine-man of the Indians has in great part the same functions and beliefs and follows the same practises as the shaman of Asia. Shamanism is not a religion; the term, used properly, represents certain religious concomitants and practises, just as do the terms "magic" and "taboo" (see COMPARATIVE RELIGION, VI., 1, a, § 5, c). The shaman is a functionary who is in part displaced by the priest and the doctor in more advanced stages of culture. Other of his functions than those included under the priestly and the medicinal fall into desuetude with advancing culture. In part, also, the functions of the shaman are exercised by the fetish doctor under fetishism. While the shaman may be described as priest and doctor in embryo, the chief characteristic of shamanism is discerned in distinguishing between shaman and priest. The priest beseeches favor of gods (or spirits), the shaman believes himself able to command spirits, and is not seldom spirit embodied. The connection with animism is shown in the idea of disease entertained by shamans, this being regarded as the work of spirits who must be mastered.

The functions of the shaman are summed up in the securing of good for those who retain his services and the averting of evil from them. This includes the direction of ceremonial, arrangement of dances and feasts, healing of the sick, guarding from sorcery, securing rainfall, and divining. In these various performances ecstasy is often employed by the shaman, and is induced either by narcotics or by self-hypnotism. The means by which these various functions are performed are held to be mysterious, known only to the user, or if known to another yet dangerous for him to employ. In the healing of the sick there are often combined an empirical herbarium and the supposed control of spirits. Deception of the patient and identity of means employed characterize the operations of shamans in the old world and the new, where they frequently diagnose illness as caused by foreign substances introduced into the body by spirits or sorcerers, and these substances they pretend to remove by manipulation and suction, having previously " palmed " or otherwise concealed them about their own persons. - Knowledge they pretend to gain by sending forth the "dream spirit" (one of four spirits possessed by them) on a search for the cause of ill or means of good. The compulsion of spirits is accomplished by the "word of power"-incantations consisting of unintelligible formulas and often of mere gibberish,