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paign against Belgium. He was pastor at Meerkker for two years (1838-40), and professor at Fraaeker (1840-43). A few months later Bcholten became associate professor of theology at Leyden, and full professor in 1845, retaining the latter position until his death, though after 1881 he was professor emeritus. Lecturing at first on natural theology and introduction, he began in 1845 to treat the Dutch creeds and the principles of the Reformed Church. Beginning with 1852 he added to his work an alternating course on Christian dogmatics and NewTestament theology, while with the change of the system of instruction in 1877 he took charge of the lectures on the philosophy of religion and the history of the concept of God. The writings of Scholten mark a steady evolution in his theological attitude, changing from conservatism to a full acceptance of the results of the critical school. This is exemplified by the difference between his HiSt0risch^kritische inteiding tot de schriften den Nieuwen Testaments (Leyden, 1856) and his Het evangelic naar Johannes (1864). His dogmatic writings were Dogmatices Christians; initia (1853-54), Geschiedenia der chriatelijke godgdeerdheid gedurende het tijdperk den Nieuwen Testaments (1856), and especially his De leer der Henormde Kerk in hare grorufbeginaden (1848-50). This latter work marked an epoch in the history of Dutch Protestantism, which had for several years approximated the Bible rather than Reformed standards. Scholten now became the leader of opposition to the Groningen school, which sought to return to the Gospel and the Arminian concept of the person of Christ, and in his work on the doctrines of his church he stoutly defended Calvinistic determinism. The position here held by Scholten was further developed is his Ge sehiedenia van godsdienst en wnjabegeerte (1853) and was still more elaborated in his De vriie aril (1859). The question of the day became the relation of man to Calvinistic predestination, and the relation of that doctrine to Christianity; go that Scholten saw himself compelled to become the protagonist of the determinists, and thus to be the leader of the " modernists." Some idea of his position may be gained from his rectoral address De godgeleerdheid aan de Neederlandsche hoogescholen (1876) and his monograph Supranaturaliame in verband met Bijbel, Christendom en Protestantisme (1867), and from other contributions.

As a delegate of the theological faculty of Leyden, Scholten was repeatedly a member of the synod and of the synodal committee of his church. In 1854 he was commissioned by the synod to prepare the translation of the Gospel and Epistles of John which appeared in 1868. (A. KUENENt.)

BIHLIOGRAPBT: Proteatantiaclw Kirchenteitunp, 18&1, PP. 789-794, 1885, pp. 380-385; A. Kuenen,in Jaarboek der

SCHOLZ, acholts, ANTON: German Roman Catholic; b. at Schmachtenberg, Bavaria, Feb. 25, 1829; d. at Wiirzburg Sept. 30, 1908. He was educated at the Lyceum of Aschaffenburg (18491850) and at the universities of Munich and Wiirzburg (1850-53; D.D., Wilrzburg, 1856); was curate of Zell (1853-55); secretary of Bishop

Anton von Stahl (1855-81); parish priest at Eiaingen, near WVrzburg (1861-72), being also district inspector of schools from 1863 to 1872. In 1872 he was appointed professor of Old-Testament exegesis and Biblical oriental languages in the University of W iirzburg, of which he was rector in 1879-80 and 1892-93. In 1903 he retired from active life. After 1885 he defended the thesis that certain books of the Bible, such as Esther, Jonah, Judith, Tobit, Bel and the Dragon, and Susanna, are not historical, but are midrashic apooalypaea. He was also a protagonist of Biblical criticism after 1895, and after long discussion, his views were recognized as justifiable by a papal decision in 1905. He wrote De inhabitatione Spiritus Sandi (W Urzburg, 1872) ; Der masaorethiache Tent and die Septuaginta-Ueberaetzung des Bathes Jeremiaa (Regensburg, 1875); Kommenlar zum Buche des Propheten Jeremias (1880); Die atexandrinische Ueberaetzung den Bathes Jesaiaa (1880); Kommentar sum Buehe den Propheten Hoseas (1882); Kommentar rum Buche Joel (1883); Judith, sire Prophetic (1885); Kommentar zum Buehe Judith (1887); Kommentar zum Buche Tobias (1889); Kommentar abet das Buch Esther mit seineyt Zusatzen and abet Susanna (1892); Zeit and Ort der Entatehung der Bother des Alters. Testaments (1893); Kommentar caber daa Bueh Judith and fiber Bel and Drache (1896); Kommentar fiber den Pratiger (Leipsie, 1901); and Kommentar fiber daa Hohelded (1904).

SCHOPEIYHAUER, shtS'pen-hau"er, ARTHUR: German philosopher; b. in Danzig Feb. 22, 1788; d. in Frankfort=on-the-Main Sept. 21, 1860. He was son of a prosperous merchant who destined him to follow his own calling. After his father's death, his mother became a well-known novelist, member of the literary group at Weimar, drawn there by the fame of Goethe. His early life was one of vicissitude; he lived successively at Danzig and Hamburg, and in France, England, Italy. He tried his hand at commercial life, science and philosophy, studied at Gottingen, Berlin, and finally at Jena, where, in 1813, he received his degree with a dissertation Ueber die vierJache Wurzel den Satzes vom zureichenden (kunde (Rudolfatadt, 1813, 5th ed., 1891; Eng. tranal., The Fourfold Root of the Principle of Suffi cient Reason, New York, 1889). This contained the germ of his later. thought. His chief works ass, Die Welt ala Wills and Voratellurcg (Leipsie, 1819; Eng. transl., The World as Will and Idea, London, 1883); Ueber den Willen in der Natur (Frankfort, 1836, 5th ed., Leipaic, 1891; Eng. transl., Will in Nature, 1889, and in Bohn's Philosophical Library); Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik (Frankfort, 1841) Parerga and Paralipomena (Berlin, 1851). His SBmmtliche Werke were issued in 6 vole. (Leipsic, 1873-74; 3d ed., 2 vole., 1891). As a philosophical writer Schopenhauer is unexcelled unless by Plato, in penetrating analysis, logical acumen, boldness of conception, subtlety of reasoning, picturesqueness of presentation, brilliancy and fascination of liter ary style.