In America

2. In the West

In the West this doctrine had fewer adherents and was never accepted by the Church at large. In the first five or six centuries of Christianity there were six known theological schools, of which four (Alexandria [see Alexandria, School of], Antioch, Cæsarea, and Edessa or Nisibis) were Universalist, one (Ephesus) accepted conditional immortality; one (Carthage or Rome) taught endless punishment of the wicked. Other theological schools are mentioned as founded by Universalists, but their actual doctrine on this subject is unknown. Doederlein says that "In proportion as any man was eminent in learning in Christian antiquity, the more did he cherish and defend the hope of the termination of future torments." In the dark ages Universalism almost disappeared, but in the ninth century it had one great representative, John Scotus Erigena (see Scotus Erigena, Johannes), who was the chief Christian luminary of his time. In the Middle Ages, some of the lesser mystics and probably Johann Tauler and Jan van Ruysbroeck (qq.v.), and one leading scholastic, Albertus Magnus (q.v.), were Universalists. In the times of the Reformation Universalists were found among Anabaptists, Lollards, and Protestant mystics; and later there were increasing numbers of individual believers in this doctrine in all northern European countries, including such men as Kant, Schleiermacher, Ritschl and many of his followers, Archbishop Tillotson, Tennyson, the Brownings, Wordsworth, and Coleridge. [The ascription of universalism to many of the ancient, medieval, and modern theologians and institutions would be disapproved by many scholars of the present, probably by a majority. In many cases the expression of the "larger hope" or of doubt as to the endlessness of future punishment is all that can fairly be claimed. a.h.n.]

3. In America

In America before the time of organized Universalism there were many representatives of this faith: Sir Henry Vane, Jr., and other mystics; the German Baptists commonly called Dunkers; some of the Moravians; several Episcopalians, especially William Smith, founder of the University of Pennsylvania, and for many years president of the general convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church; several leading Congregationalists, including Charles Chauncy and Jonathan Mayhew (qq.v.). The high character and distinguished abilities of these men go far toward extending to modern times also the words of Doederlein above quoted. The Universalist Church in America has not greatly prospered. First, its main idea was so popular in the early period of the United States that the proposal to organize a church in its behalf frightened the other churches and aroused sectarian jealousy. Secondly, the Universalists by removing the fear of hell were supposed to reduce seriously the supports of morality. And finally the church was started among the lower classes of people, and therefore the whole power of social or caste distinction was turned against it. In those days the force of sectarianism was so great and the ministers had so much influence that when nearly all parties united to lay the new church under a ban and to declare a boycott on everything Universalist, they were able almost to destroy the movement. That the conspiracy was partly unconscious did not make it less effective, though time has reduced its power. Of organized Universalism in America the chief representatives in order of time have been John Murray, Elhanan Winchester, the two Hosea Ballous, A. A. Miner (qq.v.), T. J. Sawyer, and Orello Cone (q.v.), not to mention those still living. The Restorationist Controversy arose early in the nineteenth century on occasion of a dispute over future punishment. A few of those who believed in future punishment of the wicked seceded from the main body and called themselves "The Massachusetts Association of Universal Restorationists." This association maintained a feeble existence from 1831 to 1841 and then formally dissolved. There was really no occasion for the secession, for the main body contained

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many who believed in future punishment but who were not willing to leave the parent organization. Moreover, the opposing idea of immediate and miraculous salvation of all at death was being given up as Universalists progressed in their separation from "orthodox" antecedents. This doctrine was called the "death and glory" theory, and was the usual orthodox Calvinistic theory of the salvation of the elect by irresistible grace, applied by the Calvinistic Universalists to all mankind because all are elect. When the Universalists gave up Calvinism they came to believe in a gradual salvation (by persuasion) here and hereafter, and therefore taught future punishment of limited duration. The death and glory theory was formally renounced (for the purpose of public information) by a local convention in Boston in 1878.

Statistics give 42 state conventions (or their equivalent), 673 ministers, 882 parishes, 52,751 church-members, 644 Sunday-schools with 39,523 members, 743 church edifices with parish property amounting to $12,775,996, and a very active Young People's Christian Union having a membership of 8,000. The Universalists support in the United States 4 colleges, 3 theological schools, and, in connection therewith, 4 fitting-schools or academies. These institutions employ 309 professors and teachers, are attended by 2,627 students, and are supported by funds amounting to $4,750,000. Its foreign mission in Japan was begun by the general convention in 1890, and at present employs three missionaries from the United States and four ordained Japanese clergymen, and publishes a monthly magazine in the Japanese language. It also sustains an important charity, the Blackmer Home for girls in Tokyo, Japan. For further statistics consult The Universalist Register. That the course of this church as a separate body is nearly run is a not uncommon opinion. Already on the continent of Europe the doctrines against which the Universalists protested have mostly disappeared except among Roman Catholics, and faith in universal salvation is openly and frequently professed. Great Britain is somewhat more conservative, and the United States still more so. But in the northern states of the union the doctrine is rapidly growing in favor on all sides. Christian Scientists (see Eddy, Mary Baker Glover; Science, Christian) are all Universalists; it is estimated that more than half of the Unitarians, about one-third of the Episcopalians, many of the Congregationalists, and individuals in other sects are of this faith. Already there are more Universalists outside the denomination than inside, and henceforth the work for which the sect was formed will mostly be done by the larger organizations; and there will be less and less occasion for a sect specially advocating the love of God.

George T. Knight†.

Bibliography: The literature of Universalism is extensive, especially periodicals, of which the chief now current (all, except the second, publiced by the Universalist Publishing House of Boston and Chicago) are: The Universalist Leader (weekly), The Universalist Herald (weekly, published by J. M. Bowers, Canon, Ga.), The Sunday School Helper (monthly), The Universalist Register (yearly), and Onward (weekly), the organ of the young people's associations.

For history consult: Hosea Ballou, 2d, Ancient History of Universalism, Boston, 1829, annotated ed., 1872 (learned and cautious); T. Whittemore, The Modern History of Universalism, vol. i. (all published), ib. 1860; J. W. Hanson, A Cloud of Witnesses, Boston, 1883 (a collection of quotations from many authors more or less favoring Universalism); and above all, for learning and accuracy, R. Eddy, in The American Church History Series, x. 255-506, New York, 1894; idem, The History of Universalism in America, 2 vols., Boston, 1884-86. These are all published by the Universalist Publishing House, except the volume in The American Church History Series.

The most adequate modern systematic statements of this doctrine are: J. S. Dodge, The Purpose of God, Boston, 1894, and O. Cone, What is Universalism? Boston, n.d. Consult further: The writings of Thomas Erskine of Linlathen (abound with statements of Universalism well correlated with his general thought; consult the article for a list of the writings); T.T. Munger, Freedom of Faith, Boston, 1883; idem, Appeal to Life, ib. 1887; R. J. Campbell, The New Theology, and The New Theology Sermons, London and New York, 1907 (presenting a type of Universalism).

Controversial writings: No statement of modern Universalism could be adequate without reference to the controversies which have been so large a part of the life of the denomination. Some of the latest writings of this order are: T. J. Sawyer, Endless Punishment in the Very Words of its Advocates, Boston, 1880 (learned and in Addisonian style); G. T. Knight, The Goodness of God, ib. 1904 (containing the case for pessimism and the case for optimism, in a critical philosophical manner). Doctrinal defenses of Universalism so far as based on the Bible are to be found in L. R. Paige, A Commentary on the New Testament, 6 vols., ib. 1844-70 (now somewhat antiquated); S. Cox, Salvator Mundi, New York, 1878; T. B. Thayer, The Theology of Universalism, Boston, 1862 (limited to eschatology, and antiquated). Writers who are agnostic as to universal salvation (though decidedly opposed to endless punishment) are: F.W. Farrar, in Eternal Hope, London and New York, 1878 (five sermons and other discussions exegetical and historical); idem, in Mercy and Judgment, ib. 1881; Edward Beecher, in Doctrine of Scriptural Retribution, New York, 1878; and F.N. Oxenham, in What is the Truth as to Everlasting Punishment? 1881 (an Anglican reply to Pusey; see below). The most vigorous attacks on Universalism are: W. G. T. Sheed, Doctrine of Endless Punishment, New York, 1896 (leaves nothing to be desired in behalf of its subject); H. Johnston, Beyond Death, New York, 1903; W. E. Gladstone, in The North American Review, Apr., 1896, pp. 453 sqq.; E.B. Pusey, What is Faith as to Everlasting Punishment? 2d ed., Oxford, 1880 (making an attempt to restore the traditional doctrine to its position in Scripture and history, from which Farrar's Eternal Hope had displaced it; cf. F. N. Oxenham, ut sup., for indications of te success of Pusey's attempt); and R. W. Dale, Christian DoctrineSystematic Theology, pp. 587-700, Rochester, N. Y., 1886; and S. D. F. Salmond, Christian Doctrine of Immortality, 4th ed., Edinburgh, 1901, are perhaps the most fair-minded writers among the opponents of Universalism.