II. History

1. Universalism in the East

Pantheists of all times have held a form of universalism, but with an important difference from the modern meaning of the word; they have taught that all souls will be absorbed into the Infinite, and will lose their personal identity. Christian Universalists believe that every soul will live forever as an individual and will attain a proper development and final salvation. For this reason orthodox Hindus and Buddhists and many of the speculative philosophers, even some that are called Christian, can hardly be included in this account. The earliest Universalists, more strictly so called, were Zoroaster (whose date is variously estimated from 1500 to 500 B.C.) and his followers the Parsees, who remain in this faith unto the present day (see Zoroaster, Zoroastrianism). Next in order of time were Jews, some of whom since shortly before the days of Christ were Universalists. Among Christians and those associated with the Church the first advocates of Universalism were some Gnostics (the Valentinians, Carpocratians, and Basilidians, about 130 A.D.; see Gnosticism; Basilides and the Basilidians; Carpocrates and the Carpocratians; Valentinus, Valentinians) although their doctrine as to individualism is not entirely clear. At the same time, or later, certain orthodox Christians who were the authors of the forged Sibylline Oracles (q.v.) were undoubtedly Universalists. The earliest system of Universalistic theology was by Clement of Alexandria (q.v.), who was the head of the theological school in that city until 202 A.D. His successor in the school was the great Origen (q.v.), the most distinguished advocate of this doctrine in all time. His mind had something of the largeness of Plato combined with Christian piety, and his influence was felt for many centuries throughout the East and to some extent in the West. The next great philosophical theologian in the East was Gregory of Nyssa (q.v.). Then came Theodore of Mopsuestia (q.v.), distinguished as the promulgator of the grammatico-historical exegesis (see Exegesis or Hermenutics, III., § 3; and Antioch, School of), and of a Biblical scientific theology containing a portion of the theory of evolution applied to the history of mankind. His influence for some centuries was more extensive than that of Augustine. Johannes Cassianus (q.v.) should also be mentioned: He was the author of Semipelagianism (q.v.). Under the instruction of these great teachers many other theologians believed in universal salvation; and indeed the whole Eastern Church (q.v.) until after 500 A.D. was inclined to it.