Universities are a product of the spiritual life of the Middle Ages, when they were at once ecclesiastical and secular institutions. In origin they date from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when they were called "general schools," as at Paris and Bologna, in contradistinction from other institutions termed "special" or "particular" schools. Their characteristics were three: they were institutions for every one who wished to study; their teaching was designed to be for the advantage of all Christendom; and those who completed the course of study considered typical and necessary were declared worthy, on examination, to propagate and teach the learning they had acquired.
But the university was something more than the "general school"-- it was a juristic corporation. Such organizations of teachers and students arose toward the end of the twelfth century, remolding the schools and securing important privileges. Within these corporate bodies, or universitates magistrorum et scholarium, were "faculties" of teachers and "nations" of students. In the course of time the designation of the corporate body was transferred to the corps of teachers, and in Germany studium generale and universitas were synonyms from the first. The archetype of the university was found in Paris and Bologna in the early twelfth century, the former devoted to theology and the latter to law, but both employing the same new method. This was the dialectic consideration of theology and law respectively, the set task being the dialectic removal of discrepancies between Church Fathers or glossators, the weighing of the pros and cons, and the final conclusion, or sententia. In harmony with the medieval doctrine of the universal monarchy and the universal Church, theology and jurisprudence stood in the foreground of interest. The universities were favored with special privileges, the first being the Authentica habita of the Emperor Frederick I. (1158) giving imperial protection to those journeying to distant places for the sake of study, exempting them from local jurisdiction, and placing them under the control of teacher or bishop. A similar course was followed by Philip Augustus for the University of Paris in 1200, and the popes later bestowed the right of conferring degrees and the so-called right of residence.
Toward the close of the twelfth century the University of Paris was formed by the union of the teachers of the four subjects of theology, law, medicine, and arts. By degrees the teachers of the same subjects formed still closer associations (caused primarily by the need of regulation of the conferring of degrees), which took place 1310-20. About this same time the term "faculty" was employed to denote first the subject and then the body of those teaching it. Among the faculties that of arts was the lowest, serving as introductory to the other three. It taught the traditional seven liberal arts and especially Aristotelian philosophy, while in its study of dialectics it prepared the way for theology. The faculty of law, in like manner, was devoted to canon law. In these same decades the scholars were divided, for administration and discipline, into four "nations," each headed by its chosen "procurator," and all four united under a "rector."
The students of the faculty of arts soon gained the ascendency in the university, especially as their masters were at the same time scholars in the higher faculties, and about 1274 the rector of the orations, which included the entire university except the teachers of the higher faculties, became the head of the faculty of arts. About the same time each of the other faculties seems to have given itself a "dean" as its chief officer, but by 1341 the rector had become supreme over the deans of medicine and law, and even of theology, so that he was now the ruler of the whole university, a development completed shortly before the foundation of the first German university (Prague, 1348).
While in France education had been connected, since the time of Charlemagne, with monasteries and churches, so that both teachers and scholars were clergy; in Italy the laity had also taught from Roman days, and the development of the Bolognese type accordingly differed from the Parisian. The chief studies in Italy were grammar, rhetoric, and law, the latter taught at Rome, Pavia, Ravenna, and Bologna as a department of the arts. Early in the fourteenth century, however, law became a separate branch of study at Bologna, due to the abiding influence of the lawyer Irnerius and the canonist Gratian. Thus practical and legal Bologna became the type of lay and democratic student universities, while speculative and theological Paris and Oxford were models of clerical schools of masters.
At Bologna the foreign students formed themselves into nations on the pattern of the city gilds; but by the middle of the thirteenth century the corporations had become the two great juristic universities of Citramontani and Ultramontani, within which the nations continued to be independent. These two universities (Citramontani and Ultramontani), with their two rectors, existed until the sixteenth century, whereas in offshoots from Bologna reduction to a single university took place at an earlier date. The teachers of law were at first outside the university at Bologna, nor were they organized into a formal board until the second half
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Parallel with, and in imitation of Paris, the University of Oxford developed with the twelfth century, its peculiarity being that its chancellor, as the representative of the bishop, was anal-
4. Early ogous to the chancellor at Paris, and "General" also exercised the functions of the rec-
Schools. tor. The chief "general schools" up to the middle of the thirteenth century were Reggio, Modena, Vicenza, Padua, and Ver celli in Italy, and Orl6aas and Angers in France, all primarily legal schools, the Church itself being a great legal institution. Cambridge, like its parent Oxford, possessed all four faculties. Medical schools were developed at Salerno and Montpellier, the latter also adding in the thirteenth century faculties of arts and law. Another group of universities was designedly founded, on the model of Paris or Bo logna, by the pope or the secular prince, or both together; in this class belonged the institutions at Palencia, Salamanca, and Lisbon-Coimbra. These universities, which were national rather than in ternational, numbered thirteen at the close of the Middle Ages.Italy took the lead in the establishment of universities, but with the exception of Naples (founded with four faculties by Frederick II. in 1224) and Rome (established for theology and law by Innocent IV. in 1224-45), all owed their origin to the economic and political needs of the municipalities. They were devoted first to law and then to medicine, and during this period numbered twenty. In France Toulouse was the first university to be founded on the model of Paris (1229), and its establishment by-the pope led to the theory that no university could be founded without the sanction of the pope or of his secular coregent, the head of the Holy Roman Empire. Toulouse was followed in the fourteenth century by Avignon, Cahors, Gr6noble, and Orange, and by eight others in the succeeding century. The history of German universities begins with the foundation of the university of Prague by Charles IV. in 1348, followed by those of Vienna (1365), Heidelberg (1386), Cologne (1388), and Erfurt (1392). In 1402 Bishop John of Egloffstein founded the University of Würzburg, but it did not outlive him, being permanently reestablished by Prince-bishop Julius in 1582; and in 1409 the landgraves of Thuringia founded the University of Leipsic, while Rostock was established in 1419. Outside the bounds of Germany Prague and Vienna inspired the kings of Poland and Hun-
gary to found the less successful universities of Cracow, Fiuifkirchen, and Ofen-Pest, while the Netherlands received their first university in Louvain in 1425. A second period of founding universities in Germany began in the fifteenth century, inspired by the solicitude of princes anxious to render their power supreme through the introduction of Roman law rather than by love of learning. To this category belong Greifswald (1456), Freiburg (1457), Basel (1460), Ingolstadt and Treves (1472), and Tübingen and Mainz (1477). The last medieval universities founded in Germany were those of Wittenberg (1502), and Frankfort-on-the-Oder (1506). Outside Germany, universities were founded at Upsala in 1477 and at Copenhagen in 1478, at St. Andrews in 1413, Glasgow in 1450, and Aberdeen in 1494.
The German universities were governed by the masters of the four faculties, each faculty being headed by a dean, and the entire uni-
g. Organ- versity by a rector who was originally ization. elected by all the masters and scholars, but later by the "governing masters" alone. The offices rotated semiannually. Only the fourteenth-century universities had "nations," which included masters as well as scholars; but the "nations" disappeared in the fifteenth century, though still retaining a formal existence at Leipsic until 1830. The universities were impossible without generous foundations, their income often being derived from the incorporation of a collegiate church; the theologians and jurists were generally ecclesiastical prebendaries. The staff of teachers was not large; two to four theologians, three to six jurists, two physicians, and twenty to thirty teachers of the arts. Lectures and residence alike were had in the "colleges," or university buildings, whenever possible; and besides the salaried, or "governing," masters, there were unsalaried teachers, some of them seeking the experience required for further promotion, others waiting for a salaried appointment.
Public lectures were delivered by the salaried masters, while in the colleges and halls the salaried (public) and unsalaried (private) teachers combined for private instruction, this being either the training of the younger scholars for the lectures, or the repetition of lectures previously de-
b. Instruc- livered publicly. Theological lectures tion and were based on the "Sentences" of
Degrees. Peter the Lombard, juristic on the Corpus juris, medical on Hippocrates, Galen, and Avicenna, and arts on Aristotle. The lectures were supplemented by public and private disputations. These were required weekly from the faculty of arts, while the teachers in the higher faculties were also bound to dispute in turn. Pub lic inaugural disputations were required from the candidates for degrees. The whole course of in struction was shaped to give proficiency in teach ing, and hence arose the degrees of "master" and "doctor," the former preferred in France and the latter in Italy. "Master" was also synonymous with the later "professor." The German univer sities accepted both titles, though "master" was finally restricted to the faculty of arts. After -the|
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Except in the oldest universities, where thousands of students flocked, the most of the German universities were obliged to be content 7. Students. with a few hundred scholars. The first students were chiefly clergy, nor was it until near the end of the Middle Ages, when juristic activity had fairly begun, that civilians sought university education. The faculty of arts was naturally the largest, and, while at first the theological faculty seems to have outnumbered the juristic, these conditions were reversed from the fifteenth century on. The medical faculty was relatively unimportant in Germany until the nineteenth century. The philosophical faculty is now the university proper, the other faculties being merely technical schools. No special preparation was required for matriculation in the Middle Ages; students began their university careers, with most unequal training, at the age of fifteen, or even younger, and their entire life was rigidly monastic. They heard two or three lectures daily, followed by private repetitions, exercises, and disputations. The lectures in the higher faculties were delivered free by the salaried professors, and it was only in the faculty of arts that, up to the beginning of the sixteenth century, special fees were required for individual lectures and exercises. Charges for tuition in the modern sense were unknown.
The scholastic organization of the medieval universities was shaken by humanism and destroyed by the Reformation, the result being reconstruction, on the Protestant side by Melanchthon and on the
Roman Catholic by the Jesuits. The universities of Wittenberg, Erfurt, Tübingen, Heidelberg, Basel,
Leipsic, Frankfort, Greifswald, Ros8. Post- tuck, Copenhagen, and Upsala became Reformation Protestant; and new institutions were
Founds- called into being by the Reformation dons. and Counter-Reformation: the Pro testant foundations of Marburg (1527), Königsberg (1544), Jena (1558), Strasburg (1566; an academy until 1621), Helmstedt (1576), and Altdorf (1578; an academy until 1623); Roman Catholic institutions were Dillingen (1554), Brauns berg (1565), Oliniitz (1574), Würzburg (1582), and Graz ' (1586). Reformed establishments were founded at.Herborn in 1580, at Geneva and Lau sanne in Switzerland (both in 1536), and at Leyden (1575) and Franeker (1585) in the Netherlands. A fourth university was founded at Edinburgh in 1583, and in 1591 the Roman Catholic University of Dublin was established. In Italy the Jesuits founded at Rome the famous Gregorian University in the Roman College, and the first institution of learning in the Americas was the Roman Catholic University of Lima, (1551). In the seventeenth cen tury Giessen was founded in 1607 and Rinteln in 1621 as a Lutheran protest against Marburg, which had become Reformed, while the Roman Catholics established the Benedictine University of Salzburg (1662), the Jesuit academies of Paderborn (1615), Molsheim (1618), Osna,brück (1630; destroyed by the Swedes three years later), and Bamberg (1648), and the national Hungarian University of Tyrnau (1635; transferred to Ofen-Pest in 1777-$3; now the Uni versity of Budapest). The Swedes founded the Livo nian University of Dorpat in 1632 and the Finnish University of Abo (now at Helsingf ors) in 1640, while the Dutch Reformed added the universities of Groningen (1614), Utrecht (1636), and Harderwijk (1648). The first North American university was that of Harvard (1636). With the Thirty-Years' War the establishment of denominational universi ties practically ended, though the Protestants founded Duisburg (1655; Reformed), Kiel (1665), and Lund (1666), and the Roman Catholics Inns bruck (1672).The organization of the universities remained essentially unchanged. At the same time, humanism gained recognition beside Aristotelianism, and in Protestant institutions scholasticism was sup-
planted by Lutheran and Melanchg. Changes thonian or by Calvinistic systems of
Due totheology. The professors in the faculty Humanism of arts were now salaried, in great part and the Ref- from secularized property of the ormation. Church. Each "public professor"was bound to lecture three or four times a week, his work being supplemented by heavy private instruction. The monastic life of the students ceased, though where no preparatory institution was connected with the university, each young scholar was required to choose a tutor to supervise his studies and character, this being the origin of the modern privat-docents. In the second half of the sixteenth century, moreover, the public lectures gave place, in great measure, to private lectures for which fees were required. During this and
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the following centuries the universities lost their international character, while their entire faculties were obliged to subscribe to the denominational standard of the university to which they might be attached. From political, religious, and economic motives the universities passed under the control of the State, though their corporation rights and their autonomy were unmolested. The Protestant universities aimed to give their students practical training for the ministry, while the Roman Catholic universities left this work to the seminaries and entrusted their faculties with the scholastic defense of the ancient faith and polemics against the Reformation. The Protestant institutions, therefore, were forced to subordinate Biblical studies to dogmatics, the result being an intensification of religious antagonisms and the outbreak of the Thirty-Years' War. With the close of the struggle interest in theological controversy waned. Spener and Francke brought university theology back to the study of the Bible and to practical Christianity; national law received recognition beside Roman; natural science, mathematics, and modern philosophy all became factors of moment. German replaced Latin in the lectures, and German universities became the home of a general literary culture which they had never known before. French influence was also active, to the especial advantage of the jurists, who now became the leading faculty to the detriment of theology.
The innovator of the new state of affairs was Thomasius, who, with Francke, impressed his stamp on the lately founded University of Halle (1693),
until this institution yielded its -presro. The tige to Göttingen (1734). In this Eighteenth period of transition to the period of
Century. the Enlightenment (q.v.) belongs thefoundation of the Protestardr University of Erlangen (1743), as well as of the last German Jesuit university, Breslau (1702), and the academy of Fulda (1734). In America Yale was now founded at New Haven (1701), while in 1721 the Dominicans established a Roman Catholic university at Havana. With the rationalism of the reign of Frederick the Great the universities ceased to transmit learning, believing themselves called to create it. Unrestricted philosophical theorizing received its first sanction at Halle. The universities were no longer denominational bodies for the benefit of the national church; the non-theological professors were officially dispensed from subscribing to the creeds (at Giessen, for example, on Oct. 31, 1777); and by the end of the eighteenth century Prussian law could claim them as institutions of a creedless State. The movement spread from the Protestant north to the Roman Catholic south. The Jesuits were charged with being behind the times, and, about the middle of the century, the courses of studies were radically revised at Ingolstadt and Vienna. Würzburg, Treves, Mainz, and Erfurt followed their example; only Cologne remained true to the past. The fate of the last-named, while Erfurt, Mainz, and Treves enjoyed a short revival, was to be supplanted by the rationalistically Roman Cath olic University of Bonn in 1777. A new Roman Catholic university was founded, along more con-
servative lines, at Münster in 1773, while Joseph II. established a German university, unauthorized by the pope, at Lemberg .in 1781. In France, during this period, the theological faculties were replaced by the episcopal seminaries advocated by the Council of Trent, .while the faculties of arts, divorced from theology, became colleges corresponding to the German gymnasia, so that the university properly comprised only the technical schools of medicine and law. The Revolution officially suppressed all universities. In England the old universities.preserved their medieval college organization. East of Germany ignorance prevailed, despite the exertions of Peter the Great and his successors. Moscow was indeed founded in 1755, but Dorpat was silent for a hundred years, first reviving early in the nineteenth century. In North America the eighteenth century saw the foundation of Princeton (1746), Pennsylvania (1749), King's College (1754; now Columbia University), and Rhode Island College (1763; now Brown University).
The early nineteenth century was controlled by the effects of the French Revolution. Not only had this storm overthrown all the French
ii. Nine- universities, but also Treves, Mainz, teenth Bonn,. and Cologne. In 1794 Stuttgart Century; was incorporated with Tübingen, and Germany. secularization successively destroyed the universities of Fulda (1802), Bam berg (1803), Duisburg (1806), Altdorf and Dillingen (1809), Salzburg, Rinteln, and Helmstedt (1810), Erfurt (1816); and Münster and Paderborn (1818). Frankfort was incorporated with Breslau in 1811 and Wittenberg with Halle in 1815. Ingolstadt was transferred, under rationalistic influences, to Lands hut in 1806, and in 1826 became the University of Munich. Prussia, on the other hand, received two new universities: Berlin (1809-10) and Bonn (1818). The latter, like Breslau, has both a Roman Catholic and a Protestant theological faculty. Tübingen likewise received a Roman Catholic theological fac ulty in 1817. In place of the suppressed episcopal university at Münster the State founded a Roman Catholic academy with theological and philosoph ical faculties, which has been restored to univer sity rank by the addition of a legal faculty. A like institution was established by the State at Braunsberg, while since the Franco-Prussian War the University of Strasburg has been founded (1872), which, like Breslau, Bonn, and Tübingen, has received a Roman Catholic theological faculty.In Austria some universities, as those of Graz and Innsbruck, which were made lyceums under the. reforms of Joseph II., have been restored to their former rank; in 1875 the University
12. The of Czernowitz was established, whileContinent in 1882 the University of Prague split and into a German and a Czech section.
England. In 1872 Hungary received her second national university in Klausenburg. In 1832 and 1834 the old schools of Zurich and Bern were made German Swiss universities beside the ancient university of Basel, while in French Swit zerland the Calvinistic academies of Geneva and Lausanne were transformed into universities in 1873 and 1891. In France Napoleon I. combined|
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During the nineteenth century, indeed, universities were founded throughout the world. Russia gained the institutions at Charkow, Kazan, Warsaw, St. Petersburg, Kief, Odessa, and
13. Other Tomsk; while on the Balkan penin-Founda- sula the University of Athens was eations. tablished in 1837, the institutions at Jassy, Bucharest, Belgrade, and Sofia following in the second half of the same century. Even Turkey founded a sort of university at Constantinople in 1900. India possesses universities at Bombay and Madras (both founded in 1857), and at Lahore (1882). In the Philippines the Dominican school which had existed for centuries was made the University of Manila in 1857. Japan has possessed a university at Tokyo since 1868 and at Kyoto since 1895; while there are Australian universities at Sydney (1850) and Melbourne (1853). For universities in the United States see below, §§ 14-16. For Canada mention may be made of the universities of Montreal and Toronto. In South America there has been a university at Montevideo since 1849, and the Argentine Republic also possesses one at Buenos Aires. In Africa mention should be made of the French academy at Algiers (1879), the Mohammedan school of al-Azhar at Cairo (1896), and the university of the Cape of Good Hope (1873), though the latter, like the universities in India, is only an examining body.
Underneath the history of the university in America is the development, through the influence of the American college, of a national interest in higher education, in some of its local aspects perhaps less developed and provincial, but always sincere and often self-sacrificing and heroic. The historic beginning of higher education in America is found in the grant in 1636, by the General Court of Massachusetts Bay, of £400 for the establishment of a college; a few years later, the college received a bequest from John Harvard of half his estate be-
sides half his excellent library. In these two transactions appears the dual economic foundation upon which have been reared all the institu-
x4. Amer- Lions of higher learning in America, leas Uni- namely, the voluntary support of the versifies. State and private benefaction. State Economic aid has come in the form of exemption Founds- from taxation of property devoted to tions. educational purposes; the grant of public lands to educational institutions; appropriations from the general revenues; the levying of special taxes or the application of specified taxes to the support of schools, colleges, and universities. The private benefactions have included individual gifts running from paltry sums to millions of dollars and concerted movements for the raising of endowments and other funds. Perhaps no other phenomenon of the twentieth century will be more significant than the princely gifts to the higher education which have marked its first decade; with these gifts has come the accompanying recognition of the place of the university in the higher life of the American people, a recognition seen both in the share which falls directly to the universities and in the proportion of university officers who have been made trustees in charge of the disbursement of the gifts. The total private benefactions for the year 1907-08, as reported to the United States Commissioner of Education by 464 institutions of higher learning, amounted to $14,820,955, while the gifts for the previous year were greater by more than eight million dollars. The total value of the property of the institutions reporting was $576,899,342, nearly half of which consists of productive endowments.
The universities of America present most diversified forms of organization; they may be roughly divided into three classes according to the basis of control. (1) State universities, which xg. Types of are controlled ultimately by the state
American governments, though the direct control Universities. is generally vested in a board of regents or trustees, whose membership may be appointive or elective, according to the law of the particular state. The state university, especially in the western states, is a vital part of the public school system, over all of which it is exerting an in creasing influence. Typical examples are the uni versities of Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Cali fornia. (2) Quasi-public universities, which are controlled by boards of trustees, generally self-per petuating, to membership in which, in theory at least, all men of reputable standing are eligible. Of this type are most of the older foundations in the eastern states (e.g., Harvard, Yale, and Prince ton universities), where state-controlled universities have never attained to great importance. In many cases, the alumni have some representative share in the control of this type of university. (3) De nominational universities, which by their charters are controlled by organized religious bodies or which place some religious qualification for membership in the legal board of control. In this third group belong the University of Chicago, Brown Univer sity, and the Roman Catholic universities, repre senting three different forms of religious control.|
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While there have been some noticeable movements in certain institutions of the second group toward a closer relationship with the State, as in the case of Cornell University, a still more noteworthy phenomenon of recent years has been the transfer of colleges and universities from the third to the second of these groups, under the influence of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. The question of the ethics and the wisdom of the change has been frequently raised, but the break from the earlier denominational relationship has usually been one of legal form rather than of actual severance of historic traditions. While ultimate control of all university activities remains JA the boards which control the property, the faculty, the teaching force of the institution, generally has wide powers in all matters pertaining to education itself and the discipline of the students.
Probably no satisfactory definition can be made which will differentiate between the college and the university in America. The tests of European
usage are not available here. The r6. Activi- American university need not comties of prise the four standard faculties of the
American German university, nor is it made up Universities. necessarily of a group of colleges.
Probably the most essential requirement of the American university is that it shall afford to those who have had a collegiate training the opportunity for research and advancement in higher learning; in proportion as this opportunity is present does the institution deserve in America the name "university." To Johns Hopkins University is generally given the honor of having first met this essential requirement, while Harvard University, under the lead of Dr. Charles W. Eliot, first adopted the elective system by which, with various local adjustments, the American college has in many cases been able to raise itself to the university standard, thus keeping the development of tile American university in most vital relationship with the college. In recent years there has been a noteworthy movement on the part of the American universities to get closer to the people through various forms of social service. In this, the University of Wisconsin has perhaps gained the leadership, through its efficient schemes of university extension, involving the spread of pure culture, the application of the natural sciences, even the application of the social sciences through assistance rendered to the legislative and municipal bodies. In these various ways the universities are developing a life which is making them perhaps at the present time the most representative of all American institutions, combining freedom and responsibility, idealism and practicality.
Comprehensive statistics of the American colleges and universities may be found in the Annual Reports of the Commissioner of Education.
Bibliography: General works are: H. Rashdall, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, 2 vols., Oxford, 1895; F. C. von Savigny, Geschichte des römischen Rechts im MittelaZler, 7 vols., Heidelberg, 1826-51; J. H. Newman, Historical Sketches, Vol. i., London, 1873; H. Denifle, Die Univer sitdten des Mittelalters, Berlin, 1885; S. S. Laurie. Lectures on the Rise of Universities, London, 1886; E. Emerton, tlledia'val Europe (81/,-1300), pp. 452-453, 465-471, Bos ton, 1890; J. R. Mott, Universities and Colleges as Related
to the Progress of Christianity, London, 1897; G. S. Pub nom, Books and their Makers during the Middle Ages, i. 178 sqq., New York, 1897; idem, Censorship of the Church of Rome (consult Index), 2 vols., ib. 1907; O. Thatcher and F. Sohwill. Europe in the Middle Age, pp, 59701, ib. 1900; S. G. Williams, Hist. of Mediaval Education, Syracuse, 1903; D. C. Munro and G. C. Sellery, Medieval Civilization, pp. 145-147, 217-218, 348-357, et passim, New York, 1904; J. B. Mullinger, The Schools of Charles the Great, new ed., Cambridge and New York, 1911; J. D4. Stone, Reformation and Renaissance (c. 1377-1610), London, 1904; C. F. Thwing, Universities of the World, New York 1911; F. A. Ogg, Source Book of Mediarnal Hist., pp. 340-351, New York, 1908; F. P. Graves, A History of Education before the Middle Ages, ib. 1909; Schaff, Christian Church, v. 1, chap. xi.; Henderson, Documents, pp. 262-266.
On the British Empire: R. Lethbridge, Higher Education in India, London, 1882; W. R. Roberts, British Universities, Manchester, 1892; R. C. Jebb, The Work of the Universities for the Nation, Cambridge, 1893; J. F. Willard, The Royal Authority and the Early English Universities, Philadelphia, 1902; L. Hutton, Literary Landmarks of the Scottish Universities, New York, 1904; J. Kerr, Scottish Education. School and University from the Earliest Times to 1908, Edinburgh, 1910; C. Innes, Fasti Aberdonensea, Aberdeen, 1854; C. H. Cooper, Annals of Cambridge, 4 vols., Cambridge, 1842-52; idem, Athens Cantabrigienaea, 2 vols., London, 18581; J. B. 1lfullinger, Hist. of the University of Cambridge, 3 vols., Cambridge, new ed., 1911; idem, a smaller independent work with same title, London, 1888; A. H. Thompson, Cambridge and its Colleges, New York, 1899; W. B. S. Taylor, Hist. of the University of Dublin, London, 1845; J. W. Stubbs, Hist. of the University of Dublin, Dublin, 1890; Sir A. Grant, Story of the University of Edinburgh, London, 1584; W. Stewart, The University of Glasgow, Glasgow, 1891; E. V. Vaughan, Origin and Early Development of the English Universities, Columbia, Mo., 1908; J. Coutta, A History of the UniversiSg of Glasgow. From its Foundation in 11,61 to 1909, London, 1910; A. s Wood, Athenm Ozonienaes, ed. P. Bliss, 4 vols., ib. 1813-20; H. C. M. Lyte, Hist. of the University of Oxford, Oxford, 1886; G. C. Brodriek, Hist. of the University of Oxford, London, 1887; A. Clark, The Colleges of Oxford, ib. 1893,
For the United States: A. Ten Brook, American State Universities, Cincinnati, 1875; P. de Coubertin, Universitls transatlantiquea, Paris, 1890; A. Zimmerman, Die Univeraittiten in den Vereinigten Staaten Amerikas, Freiburg,1896; J. L. Chamberlain and others, Universities and their Sons, S vols., Boston, 1899 (Harvard, New York University, and University of Pennsylvania); E. S. A. Robson, Report of a Visit to American Educational Institutions, London, 1905; J. Corbin, Which College for the Boyt Leading Types in American Education, Boston, 1908; E. E. Slosson, Great American Universities, London, 1910; J. H. Reynolds and D. Y. Thomas, Hist. of the University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Ark., 1910; W. C. Jones, Illustrated Hist. of the University of California, Berkeley, 1902;;T. H. Van Amringe, Historical Sketch of Columbia College, New York, 1876; A. D. White, Scenery of Ithaca, New York, 1866 (on Cornell); J. G. Schurmann,, A Generation of Cornell, 1868-1898, New York, 1898; W. T. Hewett, Cornell University, 4 vols.. Ithaca, 1905; B. P. Smith, Hist. of Dartmouth College, Boston, 1878; F. Chase, Hist. of Dartmouth College, Cambridge, Mass., 1891; 3. A. Eliot, A Sketch of the Hist. of Harvard College, Boston, 1878; F. O. Vaflle and H. A. Clark, The Harvard Book, 2 vols., ib. 1879; 8. B. Harding, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind., 1905; J. W. Andrews, Historical Sketch of Marietta College, Cincinnati, 1876; E. M. Farrand, Hist. of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1885; B. A. Hinsdale, Hist. of the University of Michigan, ib. 1907; A. H. Wilds, Northwestern University, 4 vols., New York, 1908; H. Garet, Otterbein University, Dayton, O., 1908; T. H. Montgomery, Hist. of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1887; J. Maolean, Hist. of the College of New Jersey, Philadelphia, 187?; J. F. Hageman, Hist. of Princeton and its Institutions, 2 vols., Philadelphia, 1879; K. P. Battle. Hist. oJthe University of North Carolina, Raleigh, N. C., 1907; M. Laborde, Hist. of the South Carolina College, Charleston, 1874; A. Van V. Raymond, Union University, 3 vols., New York, 1907; G. R. Fairbanks, Hist. of the University of the South, Jacksonville, Fla., 1908; T.,Jefferaon and J. C. Cubell,
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For Germany consult: A. Tholuck, Das akademische Leben des 17. Jahrhunderts, 2 parts, Halle, 1853-54; P. Schaff, Germany, its Universities, Theology, and Religion, Philadelphia, 1857; F. Zarncke. Die deutschen Univerait&ten im Mittelalter, Leipsic, 1857; O. Dolch, Geschichte des deutschen Studententums, ib. 1858; K. yon Raumer, Geschichte den PZidapopik, vol. iv., 4 parts, 4th ed., Gütersloh, 1872; M. Arnold, Higher Schools and Universities in Germany, London, 1874; J. M. Heart, German Universities, New York, 1874; J. Conrad, The German Universities, Glasgow, 1885; C. M. Thorden, Under the Shade of German Universities, Upsala, 1883; L. Canon, L'A;lemapne universitaire, Amiens, 1886; G. Kaufmann, Geschichte den deutschen UriiveraiE6ten, 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1888-98; F. Paulsen, Geschichte des pelehrten Unterrichta auf den deutschen Schulen and Universitaten, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1896-97; idem, Die deutschen UniveraitMen, Berlin, 1902, Eng. transl., German Universities, New York, 1906; W. Lexis, Die Universilaten im deutschen Reich, Berlin, 1904; E. Dreyfus-Brisac L' Univerailk de Bonn, Paris, 1879; J. G. L. Kosegarten, Geschichte den Universitiit Greifawald, 2 parts, Leipsic, 1857; J. F. Hautz, Geschichte den Universitat Heidelberg, 2 vols., Mannheim, 1882-84; E. Winkelmann, Urkundenbuch den Univerait&t Heidelberp, Heidelberg, 1888; J. Probst, Geschichte den UniversiElit in Innsbruck, Innsbruck, 1869; F. Zarncke, Urkundliche Quellen zur Geschichte den Universilat Leipzigs, 2 vols., Leipsic. 1857; K. yon Prantl, Geschichte den LudwipMaximilians-UniveraitaE, 2 vols. Munich, 1872; F. K. T. Piderit. Geschichte den hessisch-sehaumburpischen UniversitAt Rinleln, Marburg, 1842; O. Krabbe, Die Univeraitht Rostock im xv. and xvi. Jahrhundert, 2 vols., Rostock, 1858; K. Kliipfel, Geschichte und Beschreibung den Universitat Tübingen, Tübingen, 1849; F. X. Wegele. Geschichte den Universittit Würzburg, 2 vols., Würzburg, 1882.
For France consult: P_ Beauseire, L'Universitk sour la troisQme république, Paris, 1884; M. Fournier, Les Statute et priviMpes des universit6a franCaisea, 3 vols., Paris, 189P-92; C. Du Soulay, Historia Univerailatis Parisiensie, ib. 1665; E. Dubarle, Hist de l'universite de Parts, 2 vols., ib. 1844; C. Thurot, De, forpanization et l'enseipnement daps L'universitk de Paris, ib. 1850; H. Denifle and A. Chatelain, Chartularium UniveraitaEis Parisiensis, 4 vols. ib. 1889-97; L. Liard, L' University de Paris, 2 vols., ib. 1909; MGH, Leper, ii. 114, cf. D. C. Munro in University of Pennsylvania Translations and Reprints, ii. no. 3, pp. 2-7 (on the University of Paris); A. Lefranc, Hist. du Coll9pe de France, Paris 1892; L. Legrand, L' Universite de Douai, Douay, 1888.
On other countries: F yon Krones, Geschichte den . .Universilat in Graz, Graz, 1888; W. W. Tomek, Geschichte den Prager Universilkt, Prague, 1849; R. Kink, Geschichte den . . . Universitat zu Wien, 2 vols., Vienna, 1854; J. yon Asehlbach Geschichte den Wiener Universitdt, 3 vols., ib. 1889; R. A. Renvall, Finlands UniversiteE, Helaingfory, 1891; J. Kirkpatrick, The University of Bologna, London, 1888; V. de la Fuente, Historia de las Univeraidades . . en Espana, 2 vols., Madrid, 1884-85; G. Reynier, La Vie universitaire dans Z'ancienne Espagne, ib. 1902; W. Vischer, Geschichte den Univeraitrit Basel, Basel, 1860; H. Mayer, Geschichte den Universitat Freiburg, Bonn, 1892; C. Borgeaud, Histoire de l'universitk de Ge»we. L'Acadgmie de Calvin Bans l'universitk de Napdkote 1798-181/,, Geneva, 1909.
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