HONORIUS II., ANTIPOPE). After Alexander's death (Apr. 21, 1073), Hildebrand's time had come. During the funeral solemnities in the Church of the Lateran, the shout went up: "Hildebrand for bishopl" and amid the tumult Hildebrand was hurried to the Church of St. Peter ad Vincula and enthroned. It took place in direct contradiction to the election law of 1059; but attacks against the validity of the election were not brought forward till after 1076.
By far the most important chapter in the history of Gregory's policy deals with his relations to Germany. After the death of Henry III. (1056), the power of the kingdom became greatly weakened under the regency of the Empress Agnes and the princes. In 1073 Henry IV. (b. 1050)
Relations was still inexperienced in statecraft, with and was so preoccupied with affairs
Germany. of home government that he could notQuarrel maintain his father's attitude toward with the Curia. The situation, accord-
Henry IV. ingly, was uncommonly favorable for Gregory. In 1073-74 Henry was in such straits by reason of the insurgent Saxons that he was compelled to seek the pope's support. In May, 1074, he laid certain declarations before the pope's legate in Nuremberg, which so thoroughly satisfied Gregory that he turned his thoughts to plans for a crusade and purposed, during his absence, to commit the protection of the Roman Church to Henry. In the summer of 1075, however, the situation of the German king changed completely by his victory over the Saxons near Homburg on the Unatrut, thus gaining a free hand in Germany, with corresponding changes in his status toward the pope. Henry despatched his trusted servant, Count Eberhard, to Lombardy to restore the imperial prestige shattered by the Patarene movement. He appointed Teobald archbishop of Milan, and opened negotiations with the Normans. These steps on the king's part were at variance with the pope's policy, and Gregory addressed him an ultimatum, at the same time referring to alleged crimes of the king for which he might be excommunicated and deposed. Henry forthwith convened a council at Worms on Jan. 24, 1076. The attending prelates sided with the king and the excitement was intensified by the attacks of Candidus upon the pope, with the result that the bishops declared Gregory deposed, while Henry summoned the Romans to elect a new pope. The documents were hurriedly despatched to northern Italy, and the episcopate bf Lombardy indorsed them at the Synod of Piacenza.The papers were now conveyed to Rome, and an ecclesiastic of Parma contrived to have them read aloud before the Lenten synod just then in session.
Gregory retorted by excommunicating Henry Ex- the king, declaring him deposed, and communi- releasing his subjects from their oath cated, ro76. of fealty. Nevertheless, the political Canossa, effect of the papal measures was con- Jan.,:077. tingent upon whether the German princes would remain loyal to the king. However, the pope's calculation proved correct; the princes fell away from the king. The Saxons found the moment opportune for a new uprising, and in Oct., 1076, the princes assembled at Tribur on the Rhine to confer about the election of a new king. Although they disagreed in the matter, Henry was obliged to promise the pope obedience and satisfaction, but even so his crown gained little security. The rebellious princes agreed to deprive him of the crown, unless the ban were removed within a year, and also resolved to invite the pope to a diet of the princes at Augsburg, set for Feb. 2, 1077. Henry clearly discerned his predicament; he could save his kingdom only by obtaining release from the ban. Straightway he despatched messengers to the pope, and declared himself ready to make full satisfaction; but Gregory refused to release him. Henry now hurried in person to Italy and put upon the pope the moral obligation of absolving him before going to Germany. The Alpine passes being held by the South German princes, he traveled through Burgundy, setting out from Speyer shortly before Christmas, and reaching northern Italy in good season. Gregory had already started on his journey to Germany, but was awaiting the promised escort of the German princes. Upon tidings of the king's arrival in Lombardy, he fled to Canowa (11 m. e.w. of Reggio),|
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Only a transient peace ensued between Henry and Gregory upon this basis. When, several weeks later, on motion of some of the German princes,
Rudolph of Swabia was elected oppoSecond Ex- anion king at Forchheim, Gregory did communi- not declare against him. He treated cation of the matter of Henry's or Rudolph's Henry,iogo. legitimacy rather as an open question, Henry's Tri- and hoped to be able to decide the disumph, io84. puce as judge. Finally, when Ru- dolph, on Jan. 27, 1080, won a great victory-so the report went-near Flarchheim, Gregory again placed Henry under the ban and sentence of deposition. But this time public opinion was against him, whereas in 1078 it had sided with him; furthermore, on Oct. 15, 1080, Rudolph died, and Hermann of Luxemburg, later elected in his stead, could not materially strengthen the papal position in Germany. Henry IV. was now able to take the offensive against Gregory. At Briaen (June 25, 1080), Gregory was solemnly repudiated, and Guibert of Ravenna (q.v.) was made oounterpope. In the following year, Henry marched to Italy, since Gregory was to be conquered only in Rome. This was accomplished in 1084. A faction of the clergy fell away from Gregory, thirteen cardinals turned their backs on him, and the Roman people, weary of the war, delivered the city to the German king. Guibert of Ravenna was now enthroned (Mar. 24) as Clement III. and Henry IV. was crowned emperor by him on Mar. 31. Not until May did the Norman prince Robert Guiseard march to Gregory's aid. He forced Henry to retreat, but by his plundering of Rome the cause of Gregory, who was held responsible therefor, was lost forever. Gregory lived a year longer in exile at Salerno, forsaken by his friends but unbroken in spirit. He died May 25, 1085.
The concentration of his strength upon Germany prevented Gregory from acting with similar energy in other countries. He projected Gregory's great things in the Orient; but he did Policy and not succeed in abolishing the schism
Achieve- between East and West, nor could he meats out- institute a crusade or form a union side of with the Armenians. He made good Germany. some political claims on Dalmatia,
Corsica, and Sardinia; and he cherished the vain hope of founding a papal feudal kingdom in Spain. He once threatened excommunication and interdict, and even deposition, against Philip I. of France, who had aroused his ill-will by reason of simony and ecclesiastical oppressions; but he did not enforce these penalties-although the king showed no improvement-because he was unwilling to provide Henry IV. with a confederate. William I. of England also derived advantage from the conflicts in Germany. For; in spite of his marital relations, in spite of his appointment of bishops and abbots, in spite of his forbidding the bishops to visit Rome, and of many other things, he was spared the Roman censures. Gregory maintained favorable relations with Denmark, whose King Svend II., Estridsen, was summoned -without practical result-to transform his kingdom into a feudal dependency upon the apostolic prince. He directed like hopes toward Russia; and he affirmed that the Roman Church had long held a right of possession in respect to Hungary. He also kept Poland and Bohemia in view; even as his provident care was likewise engaged by north Africa, oppressed by the Saracens.
Gregory's administrative activity thus encompassed the entire Christian world, operating along definite lines, and clearly pursuing well-defined aims. Of fundamental significance The Aims were his ideas as to the essence of the and Means. State. The Augustinian theory that The Inves- the State is a product of sin was shared titure Con- by him; only, inasmuch as the logical troversy. sequel of a permanent conflict with the State as such was not within practical realization, he recognized the coexistence of State and Church as of divine ordination, at the same time vigorously affirming the obligation to subordinate the State to the Church. From these premises he deduced the right of excommunicating and deposing incompetent rulers and of confirming the status of a German king. The attempts to per suade particular States into a relation of spiritual dependency on the Roman see show that he had consciously in view the goal of subjecting temporal States to the Church; that is, to found a theocracy or to create an ecumenical papal dominion. He endeavored to apply these principles in filling spir itual vacancies, and in this way the dispute as to Investiture (q.v.) came about. Inaugurated by a law promulgated in 1049, under Leo IX., it filled West ern Christendom down to the Concordat of Worms in 1122. It is manifest from the laws enacted un der Gregory in 1075, 1078, and 1080 that he pur posed to withdraw appointments to spiritual positions from the influence of the king for the sake of securing this influence for himself, and so to sub stitute papal nomination for the previous royal nomination. But even had this goal been attained, Gregory was not yet at the end of his aspirations; for even if the king no longer had influence on epis copal nominations, the bishops were expected to retain all the sovereign rights, allodia, and fiefs which had been conveyed to them as princes of'the realm. By this process, however, the king's right to church property of the realm would have been annulled, and the pope, as feudal suzerain, would have acquired the right of administration over the goods of the Church.
In the internal direction of the Church, Gregory's efforts to enforce the celibacy of the clergy and to extirpate simony took front rank at the outset. The legislation of Leo IX. The Internal on celibacy was energetically sustained Adminiatra- by Gregory, and the "Nicolaitan hertion of the esy" was combated in all countries,
Church. -though with spirited protests on the part of many married ecclesiastics. The difficulty of abolishing simony was increased by the fact that in the course of time the practise|
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Prominent among Gregory's partizans and auxiliaries were the Countess Beatrix of Tuscany, her daughter the Countess Matilda, and the Empress Agnes. Among the high clergy, he was supported preeminently by Bishop Altmann of Passau, and by Archbishops Gebhard of Salzburg, Hugo of Die, and Lanfranc of Canterbury.
The importance of Gregory VII. in the history of the Church is due to the fact that he elaborated and realized, with logical acuteness Gregory's and consistency, the ideal of the pa-Importance, pacy as a political power. He exerted radical influence on the canon law in its formative period, both by virtue of his own legislative activity and also through the digests that were compiled at his instigation. Furthermore, he brought it about that thenceforward the continence of priests occupies front rank among the obligations of their vocation. Not one of the requirements emphasized by Gregory was absolutely new; but he has the merit of having given the papal ideal its classic definition, and of having made the catholic Church of the West, Roman Catholic. His name was admitted by Gregory XIII., in 1584, into the Martyrologium Romanum; and Paul V. canonized him in 1606. The passage concerning him in the Breviarium Romanum under May 25 contains a glorification of the papal power over princes and countries, which, during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, led to prohibitive measures in several Roman Catholic States.
Bibliography: Lists of literature may be found in F. Cer-roti, Bibliografia di Roma, i. 295-303, Rome, 1893; U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources historiques du moyen age, pp. 924 sqq., Paris, 1877 and Supplement, 2621-22, ib. 1888; Potthast, Wegweiser, pp. 541-542, 1350-52; Hauck-Herzog, RE, vii. 96-99.
Sources for a history are Gregory's Registrum and Epistol(e coltectm, best given by Jaffé in Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarum, vol. ii., Monumenta Gregoriana, Berlin, 1865, cf. Jaffé, Regesta, i. 594-649, ii. 751; Berthold, An-nales, Bernold, Chronicon, Lambert Hersfeldensis, An-nales, Bruno, De bello Saxonico, all ed. Pertz, in MGH, Script., vol. v., 1844; Sigebert, Chronographia, ib., vol. vi., 1844; Hugo Flaviniacensis, Chronicon, ib., vol. viii., 1848; Paul von Bernried, Vita Gregorii VII., in J. M. Watterich, Romanorum pontificum vitm, i. 174-176, Leip-sic, 1862 (cf. on it J. Greving, Pauls von Bernried Vita Gregorii VII., Münster, 1893); and the polemical literature collected in MGH, Lib. de lite, vols. i.-iii., 1890-97 (cf. on its value G. Meyer von Knonau, in Theologische Zeitschrifl aus der Schweiz, xiv., 1897, pp. 130-139). A series of documents of the first importance for the period are given in C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte des Papst-tums, pp. 100-113, Tübingen, 1901; Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, pp. 134-159; Henderson, Documents, pp. 208-211, 375-404; Reich, Documents, pp. 156-161, 300-301; and consult Robinson, European History, pp. 266-293.
For his life and activity in general consult: J. W. Bow-den. Life and Pontificate of Gregory VII., 2 vols., London, 1840; J. Voigt, Hildebrand als Papst . . . und sein Zeit-alter, Weimar, 1846; A. F. Gfrorer, Papst Gregorius VII.
und sein Zeitalter, 8 vols., Schaffhausen, 1859-64; R. Baxmann, Die Politik der Plipste, vol. ii., Elberfeld, 1869; A. V. Villemain, Life of Gregory VII., 3 vols., London, 1874; E. Steindorff, Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs un-ter Heinrich III., 2 vols., Leipsic, 1874-81; W. Martens, Gregor VII., sein Leben und Wirken, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1894; O. Delarc, S. Gregoire et la reforme de Veglise au xi. siecle, 3 vols., Paris, 1889-90; G. Meyer von Knonau, Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich IV. und Heinrich V., i. 1056-59, ii. 1070-77, Leipsic, 1890-94; J. von Döllinger, Das Papstthum, ed. J. Friedrich, Munich, 1892; J. Langen, Geschichte der römischen Kirche, vols. iii.-iv., Bonn, 1892-93; B. Platina, Lives of the Popes from Gregory VII. to . . . Paul II., ed. W. Benham, London, 1893; E. Emerton, Mediceval Europe, 8H-1S00, pp. 232-269, Boston, 1894; C. Mirbt, Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors VII., Leipsic, 1894; F. Gregorovius, Hist. of the City of Rome, iv. 171-256, London, 1896; M. R. Vincent, The Age of Hildebrand, New York, 1896; E. F. Henderson, Short Hist. of Germany, pp. 58-75, 183-227, New York, 1902; J. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, passim, New York, 1904; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vol. v.; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 379-399, iv. 82-100 et passim; Schaff, Christian Church, iv. 393 et passim, v. 1, pp, 7-64; Hauck, KD, iii. 753-838 et passim; Harnack, Dogma, vi. 4 et passim; Bower, Popes, ii. 377-410; Milman, Latin Christianity, iii. 353-496.
On Gregory's earlier life: W. Martens, War Gregor VII. Moncht Danzig, 1891; idem, in Historisches Jahr-buch der Görresgesellschaft, xvi (1895), 274-282; U. Ber-liere, in Revue Benedictine, x (1893), 337-347.
On the administration of church affairs consult: G. Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte, vol. vii., Kiel, 1876; O. Meltzer, Papst Gregor VII. und die Bischofs-wahlen, Dresden, 1876; P. Krollick, Die Klosterchronik von St. Hubert und der Investiturkampf im Bistum Lut-tich, Berlin, 1884; F. O. Voigt, Die Klosterpolitik der salischen Kaiser und Könige, Leipsic, 1888; A. Gauchie, La Querelle des investitures dans les dioceses de Liege et de Cambrai, Louvain, 1890-91; P. Imbart de la Tour, Les Elections episcopales dans Veglise de France du x. au xii. siecle, Paris, 1894; J. H. Ramsay, The Foundations of England, ii. 109 sqq., London, 1898. And on fundamentals of church policy: O. Gierke, Das deutsche Genossen-schaftsrecht, vol. iii., Berlin, 1881; C. Mirbt, DU Stellung Augustins in der Publizistik des gregorianischen Kirchen-streits, Leipsic, 1888; J. B. Sagmuller, in TQ, lxxviii (1896), 577-613.
On Gregory's relations to the states of Europe: E. Engelmann, Der Anspruch der Päpste an Konfirmation und Approbation bei den deutschen Königswahlen, Bres-lau, 1886; C. Mirbt, Die Wahl Gregors VII., Marburg, 1892; P. Sander, Der Kampf Heinrichs IV. und Gregors VII., Berlin, 1893; A. Pannenborg, Stwiien zur Geschichte der Herzogin Mathilde von Canossa, Göttingen, 1872; C. Hegel, Geschichte der Stddteverfassung von Italien, vol. ii., Leipsic, 1847; G. Hoffmann, Das Verhaltniss Gregors VII. zu Frankreich, Breslau, 1877; F. Liebermann, An-selm von Canterbury und Hugo von Lyon, pp. 156 sqq., Hanover, 1886; W. Luhe, Hugo von Die und Lyon, Legal von Gallien, Breslau, 1898; A. Huber, Geschichte Oesterreichs, i. 205, 223 sqq., Gotha, 1885; E. Freeman, Hist. of the Norman Conquest of England, vol. iv., Oxford, 1871.
Gregory VIII. (Mauritius Burdinus): Antipope 1118-21. He was archbishop of Braga in Portugal, and, having joined the cause of Henry V. of Germany, was put under the ban by Pope Paschal II. at the Synod of Benevento, in Apr., 1117 (see Paschal II.). He was then set up as pope by Henry, when Gelasius II., successor elect to Paschal, took flight from Rome before receiving consecration, and was proclaimed as Gregory VIII., on Mar. 8, 1118, being ordained priest on the 9th and consecrated bishop on the 10th. He was unable to assert himself in Rome, was imprisoned by Calixtus II., and also continued in duress under Honorius II. He died after 1137.
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Bibliography: Sources are: ATnaates R07aani, in MGH,
script., v (1844), 468-480; Landulfus. Historia Mod' olansis, ib. xx (1868), 17-49; Eccehard, Chronicon, ib. vi. (1844) 33-265; Jaffé, Regesta, i. 821-822. Consult: J. Langen, Geschichte der römischen Kirche, vol. iv., Bonn, 1893; F. Gregorovius, Hist. of the City of Rome, iv. 372-374, 384-387, 394-396, London, 1896; Hefele, Couciliengeschichte, v. 327 et passim.
Gregory VIII. (Albertus de Moray: Pope _'1187. He was born in Benevento between 1105 and 1110, was a Benedictine and cardinal, and after the death of Urban III. was almost unanimously chosen pope on Oct. 21, 1187. He was imbued with the ideal of strict asceticism, which he sought to apply both in the curia and among the clergy. He had the plan of a crusade particularly at heart, and to this end he strove to reach an understanding with Em peror Frederick I., and attempted to mediate between the cities of Pisa and Genoa. In the midst of his projects he was suddenly overtaken by death, on Dee. 17.Bibliography: Three of his Rpistola are in Bouquet, Re- cueil, xix. 330-331; twenty-seven Bpistola et privilegia are in MPL, ccii. 1537-64. Consult: Jaffé, Regesta, ii. 528-535, 770; J. M. watterich, Pontihcum Romanorum vita, ii. 683-692, Leipsic, 1862; P. Nadig, Gregors Vlll. 57-tdgipes Pontifikat, Basel, 1890; J. Langen, Gosdhichte der römischen Kirche, iv. 570 sqq., Bonn 1893; F. Gregorovius, Hist. of the City of Rome, iv. 614-815, London, 1896; Hauck, KD, pp. 912, 919; Bower, Popes, ii. 528-529; Milman, Latin Christianity, iv. 444-445.
Gregory IX. (Count Hugo-Ugolino-of Segni): Pope 1227-41. He was born at Anagni perhaps about 1145, and began his spiritual career under Innocent III., his uncle, who created him cardinal deacon and afterward appointed him cardinal bishop of Ostia. Honorius III. (1216-27) honored him with important commissions. His name is likewise intimately connected with the history of the rise of the Franciscan order, while Dominic, the founder of the Dominican order, likewise had his support. After the death of Honorius III., Cardinal Ugolino was elected as Pope Gregory IX.
Gregory quickly came into strained relations with Frederick II. of Germany, although they had previously been on good terms. The causes of estrangement lay in the general trend
Gregory of the imperial policy. At the Diet and Fred- of Frankfort, 1220, Frederick had had erick II. of his son Henry elected king of the RoGermany. mans; the administration of Sicily had been ceded to Frederick by Honorius III.; and, after putting affairs in order there, he had undertaken to win back the German imperial rights in northern Italy, where the Lombards had curtailed them. In this enlargement of the imperial power, Gregory perceived a danger for the Roman see. His distrust was enhanced by the fact that Frederick had postponed the fulfilment of his promise to proceed to the Holy Land. At the appointed term (Aug., 1227) he had indeed stationed himself at the head of the crusaders, assembled at Brindisi; but the epidemic which carried off thousands of pilgrims seized him as well, and compelled him to remain in Otranto. Gregory, not making a full examination of the circumstances, excommunicated the emperor (Sept. 27, 1227), and justified this condemnation in an encyclical. Frederick,
too, made public defense of himself, and in the follow=ing year actually began the crusade--against the pope's protest and under difficult conditions. Despite all this, he succeeded, by a treaty with the sultan Kamil of Egypt (Feb. 18, 1229), in achieving more than the other crusaders before him. The main gain was that Jerusalem was again turned over to the Christians, with the right of fortification. But the patriarch of Jerusalem, after Frederick had put on the crown of the kingdom of Jeruear lem, covered the sacred sites with a sentence of interdict. In view of this hostility, and upon receipt of tidings of the pope's encroachment on Sicily, Frederick resolved on a speedy return. He soon succeeded in expelling the papal soldiers; and in the year following, by the Peace of Ceperano (Aug. 28, 1230), after great concessions he was released from the ban.
There now followed nine years of peace, but the fundamental conflict of papal and imperial interests continued, and finally led to another open rupture. Gregory allied himself with Frederick's adversaries, the Lombards, and on Mar. 20, 1239, put the emperor under the ban for the second time. Both pope and emperor vindicated their cause in public, but Gregory, not disposed to peace, formed the design, in 1241, of having Frederick sentenced in Rome by an ecumenical council. The plan failed, however, since the imperial and Pisan fleet defeated the Genoese fleet southeastward of Elba, and the extra-Italian prelates happened, to be aboard the vanquished squadron. Gregory was not even turned from his bitter opposition to the emperor by the great surging of the Tatars toward Central Europe in 1241, until the battle near Liegnitz (Apr. 9, 1241) checked their progress.
Gregory's relations with other countries quite receded into the background in contrast with his struggle with Germany. Under his contemporary,
St. Louis of France (1226-70), that Relations country was consolidated into a with Other strong hereditary kingdom. In Eng- Countries. land, the clergy vigorously reacted Gregory's against the curia's practise of be- Importance stowing the lucrative benefices upon and foreigners. Gregory also gave atten Character. tion to crusading plane, and was occupied with thoughts of missions. His early relations with the mendicant orders proved to their advantage, though the division among the Franciscans began even in his time. His converting the battle against heresy, on the conclusion of the Albigensian wars, into a permanent institution of the Church came to be of epoch-making significance for the medieval Church, for the laws affecting heresy, as developed in his time, maintained themselves (see Inquisition). His importance for medieval philosophy and theology was due to the fact that he approved the study of Aristotle. Finally, Gregory's pontificate was of the utmost importance in the sphere of canon law, since through his chaplain, Raymond of Pennaforte, he had a collection of decretals compiled which gained universal recognition as a codification of canon law (see Canon Law, Il) and thus contributed to the victory of the pope's legislative authority. Greg-
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Bibliography: Sources for a history are: The Rpistolm, in MGH, Bpist. smc. xiii., i (1883), 261-739; MGH, Log., ii. 1 (1837), 274-276, 299-300; his treaty of peace with Frederick II., in MGH, Leg., i. 1 (1837), 334-337; lu Repistres de Gregoire IX. Recucdl des bullet de cs pope . ed. L. Auvray, Paris, 1890-99; A. Huillard-Bre- holles, Historia diplomatica Priderici 11., 6 vols., Paris, 1852-61 (a collection of documents, letters, eta.); A. Potthast, Regesta pontifcum Romanorum, i. 880-939, ii. 2099-2110, 2136-37, Berlin, 1874-75; Vita Gregorii IX., in L. A. Muratori, Script.. rer. Itai., iii. 1, pp. 575-587, 25 vols., Milan, 1723-51, also ad. J. Marx, Berlin, 1889. Pertinent documents are to be found in Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, pp. 240-259, 590-591, and in Reich, Documents, pp. 266-270, 308-318. Consult: E. Winkelmann, Geschichte Kaiser Friedrichs 11. und seiner Reiche, 2 vols., Berlin, 1863-65; A. Pichler, Geschichte der kirchlichen Trennung e wiechen dam Orient and Occident, i. 323 sqq., Munich, 1864; B. Haurcau, Grégoire IX. at la philosophic d'Aristote Paris, 1872; P. Balan, Storia di Gregorio IX. a dei suoi tempi, odena, 1872; H. Reuter, Geschichte der religidiaen Aufkl4rung in Mittelalter, vol. ii., Berlin, 1877; W. Felten, Papst Gregor IX., Freiburg, 1886; C. Rodenberg, Kaiser Friedrich 11. und die deutsche Kirche, in Historische Auf,Uee rum Andenken an G. Waits, pp. 228-248, Hanover, 1886; idem, Die Vorserkandlungen sum Frieden von San Germano, 1889-1030, in NA, xviii (1892), 177-205; E. Michael, in ZKT, ii (1888), 290-301; F. Gregorovius Hist. of the City of Rome, r. 142-217, London, 1897; M. Halbe, Friedrich ll. und der apostolische Stuhl, Berlin, 1896; R. Röhricht, Geschichte des Königreichs Jerusalem 1101-1281, pp. 757-796, Innsbruck, 1898; J. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, pp. 102, 209, 218, New York, 1904; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, v. 955 sqq.; Neander, Christian Church, iv. 17$--183; Bower. Popes, ii. 557-559; Milman, Latin Christianity, v. 321-452.
For his relation to the crusades consult: J. I. Mom.bert, Short Hist. of the Crusades, pp. 246 et passim, New York, 1894; T. A. Archer and C. L. Kingsford, The Crusades, pp. 380-383, 386, 428, ib. 1895; J. M. Ludlow, The Age of the Crusade#, p. 300 et passim, ib. 1896.
Gregory %. (Teobaldo Visconti): Pope 1271-76.
He was born in Piacenza in 1210 and was archdea con of Liége when he was chosen pope on Sept. 1,
1271. The Roman see had been unoccupied for nearly three years (since the death of Clement IV.,
Nov. 29, 1268), the cardinals in session at Viterbo, divided into a French and an Italian party, being unable to agree until finally they reached a com promise in the election of Teobaldo Visconti. At the time he was in the Holy Land as a crusader.
Upon the news of his elevation, he set out from
Acre Nov. 19, arrived at Brindisi Jan. 1, 1272, and,
after stopping awhile at Viterbq, entered Rome on
Mar. 13; he was ordained priest on Mar. 19 and on
Mar. 27 received consecration in St. Peter's as
Gregory X. On Mar. 31 he ordered a general council on May 1, 1274, for the aboli Thetion of the Greek schism, and to abate Council of the oppression of the Holy Land by theLyons, 1274. Saracens and the corruption of morals among clergy and laity. It was form ally decided, on Apr. 13, 1273, that the coun cil should convene at Lyons. Of the princes in vited only James I. of Aragon attended in person; but many ambassadors were present, and about sixteen hundred prelates, among whom were five hundred bishops. The first session of the council,
V.-5which is usually designated by the Roman Catholic Church as the Fourteenth Ecumenical Council, was opened on May 7, 1274; the sixth and last session was held on July 17.
Gregory cherished peculiar interest for the Holy Land and large resources were obtained from
France and England, which enabled A Crusade the new patriarch of Jerusalem whom Attempted. Gregory had installed (ArchbishopThomas of Cosenza) td afford sustenance to the Christian army. Moreover, on the initiative of King Charles of Sicily, a ten years' truce had been concluded in Cæsarea between Sultan Bibars and King Hugo of Cyprus-at least as far as Ptolemais and Nazareth were concerned. There shortly ensued, however, all kinds of untoward circumstances. Prince Edward of England left the Holy Land; the new patriarch proved incompetent; and the strife between Hugo of Cyprus and Maria of Antioch over the crown of Jerusalem continued. The council failed to support the operations in the East. The pope contrived, indeed, to have a tithe of the church revenues appropriated for six years to the prospective crusade; but no great or adequate action was taken.
Emperor Michael Paheologas of Byzantium had sent ambassadors to Lyons; and to gain Gregory's assistance against the aggressive designs of Charles of Sicily, he evinced great cordiality toward the pope's ecclesiastical plans. The Byzantine dele- gates accepted the filwqrte clause in Union the creed; the primacy of Rome was with the acknowledged in an imperial com- Eastern munication that was read in public; Church. and the logothete took the oath in the emperor's name that he solemnly abjured all schism. In short, the submission to the Roman see was complete.
The Council of Lyons was also important for Gregory's relations with Germany. When, after the death of Richard of Cornwall (Apr. 2, 1272),
the surviving pretender, Alfonso of Relations Castile, demanded imperial corona- with tion, the pope held aloof; as he did Germany. with respect to the demand of Philip of France, which was backed by Charles of Sicily. On the other hand, at the clove of July, 1273, he addressed to the German eleAorr the mandate to hold a new election promptly, and threatened, were this avoided, himself to appoint a king. Count Rudolph of Hapsburg was accordingly elected at Frankfort, Oct. 1, 1273. King Ottoear of Bohemia lodging a protest against tke election it was only after receiving extensive concessions that Gregory gave an affirmative decision in behalf of Rudolph's petition for imperial coronation. The pope had no success in. his attempt to move Ottocar of Bohemia to submit to Rudolph; but he succeeded in procuring the renunciation by Alfonso of Castile of all claims to the German empire. Rudolph of Hapsburg was recognized by Gregory in a written proclamation dated Sept. 26, 1274. After further concessions at Lausanne (Oct. 21, 1275), the day for the imperial coronation was set for Feb. 2, 1276. At least some attempt was also made, although|
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From all this- it would appear that Gregory X. could point to great results, but they were not enduring. The union with the Greeks soon proved a great delusion; and the time of the crusades was past. Gregory was spared disappointment, however, for he died on Jan. 10, 1276.
Bibliography: Sources are: Les Registres de Grégoire X. Recueil des bulles de ce pope .... ed. J. Guiraud, Paris, 1892 sqq.; O. Raynaldus, Annales eccleaiaaticd, xiv. 188246, Cologne, 1692; J. F. B51uner, Acta imperii selects, Innsbruck, 1870; A. Potthast, Regesta pontifcum Romanorum, ii. 1651-1703, 2131, 2138, Berlin, 1875.
Lives by three authors are collected in L. A. Muratori,Rer. Ital. script., iii. 1, pp. 597-4Ob, iii. 2, 424-125, 25 vols., Milan, 1723-51. Consult: A. Pichler, Geschichte der kirchlichen Trennung zwKachen Orient and Occident, i. 342 sqq., Munich, 1864; H. Finke, Konzilienatudien zur Geschichte des 13. Jahrhunderts, pp. 1-18, Münster, 1891; F. Walter, Die Politik der Kurie unter Gregor X., Berlin, 1894 ; H. Otto, Die Beziehungen Rudolfe van Hapsburg zu Papal Gregor X., Innsbruck, 1895; J. Loserth, in NA, xm (1895), 309-310; F. Gregorovius, Hist. of the City of Rome, v. 465-473, London, 1897; O. Redlich, Rudolf von Habsburg, Innsbruck, 1903; Hefele. Conciliengeschichte, vi. 119 sqq.; related documents in Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, pp. 260-262; Neander, Christian Church, v. 71-77; Bower, Popes, iii. 15-23; Milman, Latin Christianity; vi. 123-133.
On his relations to the crusades consult: F. Wilken, Geschichte der KreuzNige, vol. vii., Leipsic, 1832; G. W. Cox, The Crusades, p. 217, New York, 1875; J. I. Mombert, Short Hist. of the Crusades, p. 283, ib. 1894; A. von I3irseh-Gereuth, Studien zur Geschichte der Kreuzzugsidee each den Kreuzzilpen, vol. i., Munich, 1896; R. 1iohriaht, Geschichte des Konipreichs Jerusalem, 1100-1881, chap. xxxviii., Innsbruck, 1898.
Gregory XI. (Pierre Roger de Beaufort): Pope 1370-78. He was of the diocese of Limoges, and was chosen pope at Avignon Dec. 30, 1370. He was a nephew of Clement VI. and was made a car dinal in his seventeenth year. As pope he made fruitless efforts at a reunion with the East and against the Turks, and attacked the teachings of Wyclif with vehemence. In response to the en treaties of the Romans, and possibly influenced.by St. Catherine of Sienna, he determined to return to Rome and entered the city on Jan. 27, 1377. He died Mar. 27, 1378.Bibliography: E. Balusius, Vita paparum Avenioneneium, i. 425-486, 2 vols., Paris, 1693 (contains a collection of five early lives); A. Ciaeeonius, Vito et Yes gestd Romanorum pontificum, ed. A. Aldoinus, 4 vols., Rome, 1677; J. B. Christoph, Hist. du papaut6 pendant Is xiv. aiâ¤, 3 vols., Paris, 1853; F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, vi. 442 sqq., Stuttgart, 1879; Pastor, Popes, i. 100-116; Bower, Popes, iii. 116-124; Milman, Latin Christianity, vii. 219-226; KL, v. 1136-39.
Gregory Xhl. (Angelo Corrario): Pope 1406-15. He was of a noble Venetian family and was chosen pope by the Roman cardinals Dec. 2, 1406; but even the cardinals who had voted for him forsook him. The Council of Pisa deposed him on June 5, 1409, whereupon he, like his rival Benedict XIII. (q.v.) at Avignon, protested against the competency of the council and threatened excommunication. Finally, on July 4, 1415, he resigned and spent the rest of his life as cardinal bishop of Porto. He died Oct. 18, 1417.
Bibliography: A. G3aoeonius, Vita et Yes tlestos Romanorum pontifcum, ed. A. Aldoinus, 4 vols., Rome, 1677; A. L. Muratori, Rer. Ital. script., iii. 2, pp. 837-838, 841, 1118-1119, 25 vols., Milan, 1723-51; J. B. Christoph, Hiss. du,papaut,6 pendant is ziv. aipcJs, 3 vols., Paris, 1853; Pastor, Popes, i. 175-201; Bower, Popes, iii. 157-167; Milman, Latin Christianity, vii. 296-317; KL, v. 1139-1142.
Gregory XIM (Ugo Buoncompagni): Pope 1572-1585. He was born at Bologna in 1502 and for eight years taught canon law at his birthplace. His learning and his services at the Council of Trent procured him the cardinal's hat in 1564, and Spanish influence made him pope six years later. Gregory celebrated the Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572) by a service of thanksgiving and a commemorative medal. Twenty-three Jesuit colleges were founded by him and he sent the Jesuit Antonio Possevino (q.v.) to Russia to work for a union with the East, besides promoting the missions in India and Japan. He adorned Rome with magnificent churches. In 1582 he received the completed new edition of the Corpus juria canonici (see Canon Law, III.), at which he had himself worked while cardinal, and by the bull of Feb. 13 of the same year he was able to announce the completion of the work of the commission he had appointed to reform the calendar (see Calendar, the Christian, §§ 8-9). The expenses of all his undertakings brought the papal finances into disorder and the procedure of his courts incited the barons of the Papal States (q.v.) to acts of brigandage which he was unable to restrain. He died Apr. 10, 1585.
Bibliography: The best reference is Ranks, Popes, i. 319 sqq., 185 sqq. Consult further: H. M. Baird, Hist. of the Rise of &e Huguenots, ii. 500, 530-534, 564, London, 1880; idem, The Huguenots and Henry of Navarre, i.. 28 et passim, New York, 1886; M. Broach, Geschichte des Kirchenstaates, i. 247 sqq., Gotha, 1880; Philippson, in Deutsche Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft, vol. vii., 1892; Bower, Popes, iii. 321-322; KL, v. 1142-45; J. Janssen, Hist. of the German People, p. 112 et passim, London, 1905.
Gregory XIV. (Niciolo Sfondrati): Pope 1590 1591. He was born in Cremona 1535, and was chosen to succeed Urban VII. Dec. 5, 1590. He was pious and upright, but was wholly under the influence of the Spanish party and the League in France. By excommunicating Henry IV. of France he contributed much toward making Henry's re turn to the Roman Church a political necessity. He died Oct. 15, 1591.Bibliography: The Vita by Cicarella is in the later editions of B. Saechi de Platina, Le Vite de' pontifci, e.g., 4 vols., Venice, 1760-85. Consult: Ranks, Popes, ii. 32-38; H. M. Baird, The Huguenots and Henry of Navarre, ii. 247, 308, New York, 1886; M. Broach, Geschichte des Kirchenstaates, i. 300 sqq., Gotha, 1880; Bower, Popes, iii. 325; KL, v. 1145-46.
Gregory XV. (Alessandro Ludovisi): Pope 1621-23. He was born in Bologna 1554, and was chosen to succeed Paul V. Feb. 9, 1621. His
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Bibliography: Rsnke, Popes, ii. 202 sqq., iii. 333-334; M. Broach, Geschichte den Kirchenataates, i. 370 sqq., Gotha, 1880; H. M. Baird, The Huguenots and as Renocation of the Edict of Nantes, i. 194-198, New York, 1895; Bower, Popes, iii. 328; KL, v. 1146-48.
Gregory XVL (Bartolommeo Alberto Cappellari): Pope 1831-46. He was born at Belluno (51 m. n. of Venice) Sept. 15, 1765, and at eighteen entered the order of Camaldoli. He became increasingly prominent in its affairs, and in 1805 Early Life. was made abbot of the large monastery Election of San Gregorio in Rome. After the as Pope, breach between Pius VII. and NapoFeb. a, 1831. leon he was forced to find shelter in his first monastic home at Murano, just outside of Venice, where he conducted a school for the sons of the upper classes. This he was obliged later to transfer to Padua; but in 1814 he was able to return to San Gregorio, and presently rose to be procurator-general and vicar-general of his order. In 1825 Leo XII. made him a cardinal and prefect of the Propaganda. On the death of Pius VIII. (Dec. 14, 1830), the conclave was divided between Cardinals Paces, and di Gregorio, and only when the friends of the latter showed signs of going over to the reactionary Giustiniani did Pacca's principal supporter Albani turn to Cappellari. Nevertheless, he did not reach the requisite number of votes until Feb. 2, after the duke of Modena had plainly signified the desire of Austria that a choice should be speedily made, in order that pope and emperor might work together to counteract the threatened revolution in central Italy.
Cappellari was hardly crowned as Gregory XVI. before the revolution broke out. Louis Philippe had declared in favor of the policy of The Italian non-intervention in the autumn of Revolution 1830, and the small states of Italy of 1831 and hoped to be allowed to regulate their Its Conse- own affairs. Francis IV. of Modena, quences. perhaps in the Austrian interest, had affected to coquet with the revolutionary movement. On the day after the election of Gregory he thought the time had come to act decisively against it. But the next day a formidable rising at Reggio and elsewhere forced him to take refuge in Mantua; at the same time a similar movement showed itself in Bologna, and by Feb. 8 the Italian tricolor had generally replaced the papal flag in that part of the States of the Church. An attempted rising in Rome on the night of Feb. 12-13 was easily suppressed; but outside the city the flood of revolution rose, and Bernetti, the secretary of
state, saw nothing for it but to summon Austria to his aid. By Feb. 25 a strong Austrian force was marching on Bologna; the provisional government fled to Ancona, and it was not long before most of the conspirators (among whom was Louis Napoleon) had taken refuge in foreign countries. Austria, felt entitled to make certain demands of the pope, and Bernetti at once promised considerable reforms. When these were not carried out, the five great powers in a joint note of May 21, 1831, demanded the admission of laymen to administrative and judicial offices, the establishment of communal and provincial councils, and a giunta or assembly of notables which should be a guaranty for continuity in the government. Gregory appointed commissions to report on these proposals, in order to gain time. The year 1831 was one of great financial distress in the Papal States, and the public debt rose alarmingly, reaching sixty million scudi by the death of Gregory. Such reforms as were introduced failed to content the populace, and when the Austrian army departed in July, a new revolution was already in contemplation. Deputations from the provinces came to Rome, hoping, with the aid of the foreign ambassadors to compel the execution of the reforms demanded by the powers. Bernetti still temporized and made slight concessions; but in Jan., 1832, Austrian troops had to be summoned once more into the legations. France had already warned Bernetti that this step would be followed by a French occupation of Ancona, which was carried out, in spite of papal protests, on Mar. 21. Casimir-Pdrier announced that this was done with a view to compelling liberal reforms; but its effect was counterbalanced by the influence of Austria. The universities had been closed the year before and many students had to leave their homes, embittered against the Church. A good idea of the spirit which prevailed in the curia may be gained from the encyclical Mirari vos of Aug. 15, 1832a link in the series of declarations which culminated in the encyclical and syllabus of 1864; it was directed especially against Lamennais (q.v.) and against Belgium, which had shortly before adopted a constitution guaranteeing liberty of conscience. Considerable excitement was also caused in Germany by the encyclical Dum acerbissimas of Sept. 26, 1835, condemning Hermesianism (see Hermes, Georg).
An indiscreet note of Bemetti's which came into Metternich's hands caused his downfall. He was replaced by the Genoese Lambruschini,
Lambrus- who had been nuncio in Paris during chini the July Revolution, and as a diplomat
Secretary was a pupil of Consalvi's, though with of State. more churchly feeling. He soon made The Jesuits himself feared, and the pope was Suppressed wholly led by him. The Austrians
in France. evacuated Bologna and the French Ancona in 1838, and things seemed quiet; but the revolutionary party was pursuing its work in secret. Mazzini had formed the "Young Italy" party, which, while it did not share the religious belief of the populace, still coupled the name of God with that of the people in its appeals. The neo-Guelph party which arose in the forties, under the leadership of Gioberti and Count Cesare|
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Meantime the revolution had lifted its head once more at Bologna and Rimini in 1843. Luigi Carlo Farini issued a manifesto which called Later for an amnesty, juster penal laws, and Events in a share in the government; Massimo Italy. d'Azeglio and Gino Capponi published Gregory's notable appeals. , Lambruschini's an-
Merits. ewer was the exercise of still greater severity, and d'Azeglio was banished from Tuscany at his request. The Jesuit question came up in Italy also. Some expressions of Gioberti in his Prolegmneni al Prinwto (1845) called forth a defense of the order from Francesco, brother of Silvio Pellico, and Curci; Gioberti was not silenced, but began to collect material for his thoroughgoing work 11 Geauith mod- (8 -Is-, Paris, 1846-47). Before it was published, however, Gregory XVI., already failing in health, died June 1, 1846. He was a friend of all the monastic orders, and did much to prepare for the definition of the immaculate conception. Stiff and unyielding in his ecclesiastical policy, he came into serious conflict with Prussia over the mixed marriage question (see Droste-Vischering), and by the encyclical Inter prcecipuas of May 8, 1844, condemned the Bible societies and the newly formed Evangelical Allicance. He was a liberal patron of art and letters; he established the Etruscan and Egyptian collections of the Vatican, and laid the foundation for the Lateran museum of Christian antiquities.
Bibliography: M. N. Maynard, JacQues Cretineau-Joiy, Paris. 1875; M. Brooch, Oesehdchts doe Kirchenstaatea, ii . 337 sqq., Gotha, 1882; C. Sylvain, Grégoire XVI. et son pontdfCat, Paris, 1889; J. J. I. von Döllinger, Kirche and Kirden, pp . 581 sqq., Munich, 1881; idem, Dos Papsh tum, pp. 234 sqq., ib. 1892; C. Mitt, Die yremsiseAe Go sandtaehaf am Ho% des Papstes. pp. 28 sqq. Ldpsie, 1899; F. Nippold, The Papacy in the 18th Century, Pp. 82, 93, 95, 112, New York, 1909; F. Nielsen, Hist. of fhe Papacy in the 1 9th Century, 2 vols.. ib. 1905; Bower, Popes, iii. 470-472; KL, v. 1148-58. For the Encyclicals of Gregory consult the Eng. trends. which appeared Dublin, 1833, London, 1838; The Encyclical Letter of - - - Pope Gregory XVI. . . issued may 8th, 1844, Lat. text, Ital. transl., London, 1844; A Voice /turn Rome Answered by an American Citizen. A Review of the Encyciioa4 Philadelphia, 1844 (with the text); L Rupert, La Li berM moderns i uD& Pay' 1'Miae. Eneyclique . . . de Grégoire XVl_ Paris, 1882.
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