GREGORIAN CHANT. See Music, Sacred, II., 1, § 2.
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GREGORY: The name of sixteen popes.
Gregory I., the Great: Pope Sept. 3, 590-Mar. 11, 604. He was born in Rome about 540. His father, Gordianus, was an ecclesiastical Regionarius (q.v.). After her husband's Life Before death his mother devoted herself to his Conse- the cloistral life. Brought up "as a cration as saint in the midst of saints," Gregory
Pope. was thoroughly instructed in grammar and rhetoric, and read the Latin Fa thers zealously, especially Augustine, Jerome, and Ambrose. He so distinguished himself, moreover, in his legal studies that Emperor Justin II. ad vanced him to the rank of prefect of the city (be fore 573). Nevertheless, his religious devotion ul timately led him to renounce the life of the world; and after his father's death he devoted his wealth to good works. He built six cloisters in Sicily and endowed them with lauded estates, as well as a seventh in his own house at Rome. The latter St. Andrew's--he himself entered about 575. It is uncertain under what rule he lived as monk; but he extolled the Benedictine rule in his Dlalogua (ii. 26) and sooner or later he introduced it into the cloisters of his foundation. To the end of his life Gregory evinced a special predilection for monas ticism, desiring to promote the purely contemplative life as the most perfect, and to secure it from perturbations.Pope Benedict I. constrained Gregory to return to the world, and ordained him one of the seven Roman deacons (577). When Benedict's successor, Pelagius II., had been consecrated before imperial confirmation of his election had been received, he sent Gregory as his delegate to Constantinople in 579, to justify this irregular procedure, and at the same time to entreat aid against the Lombards, then menacing Rome. The first object succeeded, but not the second. It is probable that Gregory was allowed to return to Rome and his cloister in 585. In 590 he was unanimously elected pope by senate, clergy, and people. He hesitated to accept this high dignity, owing not only to his predilection for the contemplative life, but also to his conviction that the office should be conferred only on one who fled from it in humility; but he was consecrated on Sept. 3.
His first care was the security of Rome against the Lombards. Efforts to this end, however, were obstructed by the factional struggle in Ravenna, the imperial capital of Italy, for the independence of its Church from Rome, which cre-
Struggle ated difficulties for the Roman bishop Against the in the political sphere and sought to Lombards. influence the imperial exarch against him (see Ravenna). In 591 Gregory despatched soldiers to support the imperial com mander against the Lombard duke, Ariulf of Spo leto; and likewise sent a reenforcement to the im periled border-post of Nepi, and a tribune to Naples, so that that city was able to hold out. Neverthe less the exarch sent no help and refused his consent to a peace. Gregory, therefore, of his own accord concluded peace with Ariulf in 592. Next, how ever, the Lombard King Agilulf moved against Rome, to chastise the pope as his most zealous an- tagonist. He invested the city in June. The stress of famine that shortly set in compelled Gregory to send a liberal ransom and bind himself to an annual tribute. He then again zealously endeavored to bring about a general peace between the Lombards and the imperial party. But the emperor, Mauritius, sided with his exarch, whereupon, Gregory's efforts for peace remaining fruitless, the Spoletans and Beneventans again broke forth in 596, devastating Campania and the southwest of the peninsula. With a view to mitigate the misery thus occasioned, Gregory sent funds for the ransom of the captives, and even authorized the bishop of Naples to apply the sacred utentils to this object. He then sought to defend Corsica and Sardinia from the threatening danger. Finally, in the spring of 599, it was practicable to conclude peace.The means for so sweeping a political activity were secured to the pope by the patrivwnium Petri -the rich possessions of the Roman Church in all Italy, Dalmatia, Gaul, and North Africa. Gregory now strove to consolidate this property into an organized whole, and to enhance its productiveness.
To this end, he sought to make practical Administration application of the principle that of the Church must not farm out her es Church tates, but administer them herself, as Property. far as possible through the clergy exBenevolent clusively. At the same time, he Activity. exercised a careful personal supervision over these officials, requiring of them the most scrupulous accountability in receipts and expenditures, and supplying them with minute instructions as to the best management of the estates. The revenues which accrued were applied not only to strictly ecclesiastical purposes; but also toward provision for the sick, the infirm,.aad orphans; to the maintenance of almshouses and pilgrims' hostelries; to the support of other benevolent institutions at home and abroad; to the ransoming of captives and slaves; toward fighting or conciliating the Lombards. This political and social activity which the conditions of the time forced Gregory to undertake on so large a scale obtained for him in the sight of all Italy, which looked in vain for protection and help from the emperor, so high a regard that ~.i Central Italy he was honored like a sovereign prince. In a word, the temporal sovereignty of the papacy then had its beginning (see Papal States).
Gregory entertained a noble conception of his position as Roman bishop, yet, while he regarded every office in the Church as a service, in another light Peter must have been charged Gregory's -and likewise his successors-with Conception the duty of strengthening his brethof the Pa- ren; and every bishop should be will- pacy. ing freely to receive service from Relations Peter's successor. It was Gregory's with Con- indefatigable endeavor gradually to stantinople. gain ground for this theory, though in every concrete instance he brought only so much pressure to bear as would secure the recognition of his tenets. His views were destined to encounter opposition, especially in Constantinople. When the patriarch at that see, Johannes IV.,
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Jejunator (q.v.), kept assuming the title "Ecumenical," Gregory made earnest remonstrances to him, and forbade his envoy to attend the patriarch's mass so long as he retained that title. The emperor addressing Gregory a written admonition to keep the peace, he answered both emperor and patriarch in the sharpest terms. Not even the bishop of Rome, he said, though to him was "committed the primacy and the care of the entire Church," called himself "Universal. Bishop"; and last of all might the bishop of Constantinople so style himself, since it was notorious that many bishops of that Church had fallen into the abyss of erroneous doctrine. The dispute continued under the new patriarch, Cyriacus (see Cyriacus, 2). Finally, Gregory believed himself permitted to hope for victory in this contest, when (Nov., 602) the patriarch's defender, Emperor Mauritius, was dethroned and executed by Phocae. In confidence of the new emperor's assistance, he again admonished the patriarch "to put far from the Church the scandal of that impious and proud title." His will was attained after his death, in that Phocas so acknowledged Rome as "head of all the churches."
Relations - with Ravenna and Other Bishoprics.
Gregory had likewise to contend with John, the archbishop of Ravenna, who had been loyally devoted to him at the outset. When the pope, however, forbade him to wear the pallium except during mass, he would not comply. After his death (595), Gregory rejected the candidates proposed in Ravenna, and nominated his friend, the Roman presbyter Marinianus, yet even he soon refused to acknowledge the bishop of Rome as the decisive tribunal in the affairs of distant churches. Gregory encountered similar opposition in Illyria and Aquileia. In Africa, the Church still suffered grievously from the Donatist schism (see Donatism). Gregory deemed it his official duty to exhort the bishops as well as the exarch and the emperor to combat this heresy, and to express his censure if this were not done in the way by him judged proper. When, however, he desired that in future the primate of each ecclesiastical province should no longer be ap pointed. according to seniority, but by election, the bishops declined to approve this infringement of their ancient consuetudines; and the pope was obliged to yield. In other instances he regarded the independent spirit of the North African Church; but, though he had the gratification of appeals from this church to Rome, he never required the case to be decided by himself at Rome, but stopped short with allowing the matter to be settled on the spot. He was able to commit the Spanish Church unreservedly to the care of his friend, Bishop Leander of Seville.
The Frankish Church.
Peculiarly difficult was Gregory's position in respect to the Frankish Church, which was already accustomed to independence, while Gregory was so entirely unprovided with practical means to confront the situation aggressively that here he must show forth, in special measure, a wise "humility in service." No vicar of the pope had held office in Gaul from 586 onward, until Bishop Virgilius of Arles, in harmony with King Childebert, besought Gregory, in 595, to appoint him his vicar, and to confer the pallium on him. Gregory forthwith made efforts to abolish simony and the promotion of laymen to bishoprics. He also encouraged the holding of synods under the presidency of his vicar, along with obedience to their enactments, reserving for the Apostolic See the decision of disputes in matters of faith, and other difficult questions. When nothing resulted from all these beginnings, Gregory attempted to gain influence over this "extra-Roman" Church through a special legate, Candidus, as well as through frequent written communications to the princes and a number of the Frankish bishops. The task was aggravated because he was obliged to commend himself and his wishes to the favor of Brunhilda; but infamous as her deeds were in all else, at least she befriended the Church, so that Gregory deemed it his duty to ignore the darker sides of her life, and by laudatory recognition of what she did for the Church to render her disposed toward still further fulfilment of his wishes. This policy was not simply diplomacy. Gregory was entirely persuaded that what the good Brunhilda had wrought for the Church was in itself well-pleasing to God, meritorious, and available to cancel sin. However, the irregular appointment of bishops was not abated, nor did the synod, from which Gregory hoped for important reforms, come to pass in his lifetime. Nevertheless his endeavors with reference to the Frankish Church are to be reckoned among the fruitful seeds which at last sprang up and grew.
Of the very greatest importance for the future was Gregory's missionary activity, of which the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons (see Anglo-saxons, Conversion of the; Augustine, Saint, of Canterbury) was the most conspicuous result.
He sought also to win the Jews forGregory's Christendom, forbidding herein all Missionary manner of coercive procedure, but
Activity. holding it allowable to promote theirconversion by pecuniary rewards. When he learned that in Sardinia there were still many heathen, he commanded the bishop to resort to flogging and imprisonment. Here the Church possessed power, and so needed not to exercise the patience that was still requisite in England.
Among the writings of Gregory, his Expoaitio in beatum Job seu moralium libri XXXV. was utilized and highly esteemed as a compendium of ethics
during all the Middle Ages. He was Writings. moved to compose his second work,ReguLa pastorales, by the reproaches of Archbishop John of Ravenna for his attempt to avoid by flight his elevation to the papal throne. In the first part he shows how the highest government is to be attained; in the second, how a pastor should live; in the third, how he should teach; in the fourth, that good conduct of office must not be allowed to lead one astray through pride. This book was early so renowned that in 602 the Emperor Mauritius had it translated into Greek, while Alfred the Great (q.v.) rendered it into AngloSaxon. At several synods (for instance, those of
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In the liturgical sphere, Gregory was certainly active, but the evidence does not altogether confirm the traditional view that "he esReform of tablished a strict order in the ordo the Liturgy. Romanus for the solemn observance of mass, as performed in Rome on processional days, transcribing from the Psalms into the liber antiphonarius the portions to be sung during the introit, gradual, hallelujah, tract, offertory, and communion, and eliminating from the sacramentary of Gelasius whatever he deemed unnecessary; but adding new matter, and thus becoming the author of the sacramentary still known by his name, besides perhaps compiling the liber responsalis, containing the responsories usual in the mass, and the hymns of the canonical book of hours." Nor is it altogether certain whether that style of liturgical chant which has become customary in the Roman Catholic Church is, rightly termed "Gregorian" after Gregory I. as its originator (see Music, Sacred, Il., 1, § 2). Against such an epochmaking activity on Gregory's part in the musical sphere, it is especially significant that no indications of it appear, either in his versatile correspondence, or in any other sources in all the seventh century; although it is certain that he founded a
* The Benedictine edition of his works attributes eight hymns to him, viz. (1) Primo dierum omnium, several Eng. transls., e.g., J. M. Neale, " On this the day that saw the earth"; D. T. Morgan, " welcomel Thou chiefest of all days"; (2) Nocte surgentea tigilemus omnea, by Cardinal Newman, " Let us arise and watch by night"; (3) Ecce jam noctis tenuatur umbra, by Cardinal Newman, " Paler have grown the shades of night"; (4) Clarum decua fejunii, by R. F. Littledale, " The shining glory of the fast"; (5) Audi, benigne conditor, by J. M. Neale, " O Maker of the world, give ear"; (6) Rex Christe, factor omnium, by Ray Palmer, " O Christ! our King"; (7) Lucis creator optime, by Cardinal Newman, " Father of lights, by whom each day"; and (8) Mapno salutia gaudio. Cf. Julian, Hymnology, passim.
chorister school in Rome to improve the church singing.
Gregory's importance in the history of dogmatics is great. During the Middle Ages no Christian writer of the past was studied so much as he. Though he furnished no original thoughts, this very defect made his writings especially Gregory's useful for an era wherein the only valid
Theology. rule was to transfer what was old into the new ecclesiastical forms which grew out of national readjustments. Furthermore, he was commended by the fact that he appeared to lean entirely upon the great Augustine, and was even able to replace the latter, reproducing his thoughts in such a form that they were no longer too difficult for the uneducated multitudes. The impression is not infrequently given that Gregory may have possessed more Christianity than he offered to others; the fact is that the same regard for the attainable as is traceable in all his policies caused him, as a teacher, to say only so much, and that only in such guise, as, in his opinion, could find acceptance and exert practical influence amid the ecclesiastical conditions then prevalent. As thus viewed, Gregory's contribution may be termed an abridged and materialized Augustinianism. Stiff necks are to bend under the authority of Holy Scripture and Holy Church. The former is dictated by the Holy Ghost; outside the latter one can "absolutely not be saved." That is to say, none but the officiating "regents" in this Church administer the necessary "boons" to the attainment of salvation. True, Christ "appeased by his death the judge's wrath"; but his sacrifice undergoes its effectual repetition in the sacrifice of the mass provided by the Church. Consequently the Church, in the sacrifice of the mass, is possessed of a means for influencing God. Again, this "good work" dispensed by the Church also profits the dead in Purgatory, while it -_;ometimes helps even the living in earthly tribulation. In like manner, Gregory sharply defined and incorporated into the church doctrinal plan certain theories which had long been in vogue in a supplementary way, 'out which Augustine had admitted to be only "perhaps" true, or "not incredible"; and he likewise keenly appreciated the value of the marvelous in impressing a people still half-pagan. His doctrine of sin and grace is so far Augustinian that he teaches the damnation of children dying without baptism, and seems to assume the irresistibility ~f grace (Moralia, IX., ix. 13); even though he speaks of a "monstrous great weakness" in fallen man, of our "voluntary accord with the grace which frees us," and of the cooperation of man's will in good works. In this light "it can be said of us that we free ourselves"; and therefore "the good that we do is both God's and our own doing," and becomes our "merit." In a similar vein he speaks of the "hidden decree of predestination"; but "the determined number of the elect," rests on "the foreknowledge of God." Gregory indeed appears to hold the necessity of an inward transformation of man, in that according to him the voice of the Spirit wbich speaks in man by process of the Word inspires love toward the invisible Creator, and, con-|
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Gregory died on Mar. 11, 604. The Church received him into the number of her saints, and honored him by the title of "the Great." His earnest monastic piety; his restless toiling for Gregory's the extension and strengthening of the Character faith, for the elevation of morals, for and influence. union of the various churches with the see of Rome; and the justice and gentleness, energy and patience that he showed-all this makes him one of the noblest representatives of the papacy. If, notwithstanding his defects of actual scholarship and original thoughts, he has been reckoned one of the four great doctors of the Western Church, the explanartion is, on the one hand, the comparative power of even a dim light in a dark age; on the other hand, the fact that the age succeeding him found the dwarfed type of Christianity which he transmitted fully satisfactory.
Bibliography: Lists of literature will be found in Potthast, Wegweiaer, pp. 539-540, 1349-50. The Opera are collected in MPL, L cxv. lxxix. His Dialogorum libri quatuor, ad. W. Forster, appeared Halle, 1876 (the best). The moat worthy edition of his Epistles is by P. Ewald and L. Hartmann, 2 vols., Berlin, 1887-99. His Decretals are in the Bullarium magnum Romanum, ed. A. Tomaesetti, i. 159-160, Turin, 1857; and his Hymns in H. A. Daniel, Thesaurus hymnologicus, i. 175 sqq., Halle, 1841; King Alfred's Version of Gregory's Pastoral Care, ed. H. Sweet, appeared London, 1871. Parts of the Works, tmnsl. by J. Barmby, are in Fathers for English Readers, London, 1878, and by the same person his Pastoral Rule and Seceded Epistles, with Introductory Notes and Indices, in NPNF, 2d ser., vol. ail. Interesting issues are: The Dialogues of S. Oregorie, Paris, 1608, ed. H. J. Coleridge, London, 1872; and The Life and Miracles of S. Benedict, from an old Version by P. W., Paris, 1808, ed. F. J. Luck, ib. 1880. An Eng. transl. of the Morale on the Book of Job, 3 vols., ed. E. B. Pussy, app,amd in the Lives of the Fathers, London, 1838, and selection from the Dialogues, ib. 1901.
The sources for a life are: Liber pontifmlis, ed. Duchesne, f. 143 sqq., Paris, 1888, and ed. Mommsen in MOH, O est. poet. Rom.. i (1898), 180-162; the Vita by Paulus Diaconus, in MPL, I xxv. 41 sqq., and that by Johannes Diaconus, ib. pp. 63 sqq.; Paulus Ihaconue, Hist. Langobardorum, iii. 24-25, and iv. 5, ed. Waits in MOH, Script. rer. Langob., i (1878), 12-187; Gregory of Tours, Hist. Francomm, x. 1-2, ed. Waits in MOH, Script. rer. Memo., i (1885), 1-450; Bede, Hist. eccl., i. 22-23, ii. 1-3, v. 25; Jaffé, Regesta, i. 443 sqq.; P. Ewald, Die alteste Biographie Gregor# l., in G. Waits, HistoriaeAe Aufsatee, Hanover, 1886.
Modern treatises on the subject are: G. Lau, Oregon I., Leipsic,1845; E. Clausier, S. Gregoire, 3 vols., Paris, 1889-1890; T. Bonsmann, Oregon 1. den Grosse, Paderborn,1890; A. Snow, St. Gregory, his Works and his Spirit, London, 1892; F. Gregorovius, Hist. of the City of Rome, ii. 3br 99, ib. 1894; C. Wolfegruber, Oregon den Grosse, Ssulgrau, 1897; F. H. Dudden, Gregory the Great, 2 vols., London, 1905 (critical and independent); Mann, Pop", I. 1-250 (his letters to Leontia and Phocas, pp. 419-424); Ceillier, Auteurs sacrés, xi. 429-587, cf. Index; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 112-119, 141-151 et passim, consult Index (very full and varied discussion); Schaff, Christian Church, iv. 211-229; Bower, Pop", i. 390-424; Milman, Latin Christianity, ii. 42-85; Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen, i. 104 sqq.; Rettberg, KD, ii. 584; Hauck, KD, i. 425 sqq. et passim; DCB, ii. 779-791; much of the literature given under Augustine (AUSTIN), SAINT, bears on this subject.
For treatment of various phases of Gregory's activities consult: P. Game, Kirchengeschichte won Spanien, ii., part 2, Regensburg, 1862; L. Pingaud, La Polstique do S. Glrdgoire, Paris, 1872; Grisar, in ZKT, i (1877 ), 321 sqq., 526 sqq., xiv. 1890 T. Wollachack, Die Verhdltnisse Italians . . . nach deco Briefwechsel Gregors I., Horn, 1888; W. Weisbaum, Die wichtigsten Ricktungen and Ziels den Thdtigkeit des Papstes Oregon, Bonn, 1884; F. Görres, in ZWT, xxix (1886), 36 sqq.; H. Gelser, in JPT, xiii (1887), 549 sqq.; L. M. Hartmann, Untersuchung cur Geschichte den byzantiniadhen Verwaltung in Italien. Leipsic, 1889; F W. Kellett Pope Gregory the Great and his Relation. with Gaul, Cambridge, 1889: E. Basaenge, Die Sendung Augustine cur Bekehrung den Angelsaeheen. Leipsic, 1890; R. Heinrichs, in Katholik, 1894, pp. 12 sqq.; The Mission of St. Augustine to England according to the Original Documents, Cambridge, 1897; F. H. Dudden, Gregory the Great, his Place in Hist. and Thought, London, 1905.
On his writings: A. Ebert, Geschichte den chriselichlateinischen Literatur, pp. 516 sqq., Leipsic, 1874. On his liturgical influence: W. Hohaus, Die Bedeutung Gregors . als liturgischer Schriftatsiler, Glats, 1889; F. A. Gevaert, Les Origines du chant liturgique de llgliw latine, Ghent, 1890; G. Morin, Los Veritabfes Origines du chant Grtgorien, Abbaye de Maredsous, 1890; Grisar, in ZKT, xiv (1890), 377 sqq.; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 469-470. On his significance as a theologian: G. F. Wiggers, in ZHT, 1854, pp. 7 12; C. E. Luthardt, Die Lehre vom freien Willen, p. 53, Leipsic, 1863; J. Nlrschl, Lehrbuch den Patrologie and Patriatik, iii. 533 sqq., Mainz, 1885; F. Loofs, Leitfaden sum Studium den Dogmengeschichte, pp. 244 sqq., Halle, 1893; R. Seeberg, Lehrbuch den Dogmengeschichte, ii. 1 sqq., Leipsic, 1898; Harnack, Dogma, iii.-vi. passim.
Gregory II.: Pope 715-731. A Roman by birth, he was destined from childhood for the ecclesiastical state. Under Sergius I. (687-701) he became a subdeacon, and was made treasurer and librarian of the Roman Church. He accompanied Constantine I. (q.v.) on his journey (709-711) to the Byzantine court, and is said to have made his mark in the discussions there. He was elected pope May 19, 715. His pontificate was marked by the beginning of the great conflict between the Roman see and the Lombards, which ended in the downfall of the Lombard kingdom; by his controversy with the iconoclastic Emperor Leo III.; and by his relay
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Bibliography: His Epietolm et eanones are in MPL, Ixmx. Consult: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, i. 249-267, Paris, 1888; Paulus Diacanus, Hist. Langobardorum, vi. 40, ed. Waits in MGH, Script. Per. Langob., i (1878 ), 12187; Jaffé, Regesta, i. 249-257; F. Kunstmann, Die lateinischenP3nitentialUcher der Anpelsachsen, Mainz, 1844; A. von Reumont, Geschichte der StaM Rom, ii. 213 sqq., Berlin, 1887; R. Baxmann, Die Pofitik der Päpste, i. 195-209, Elberfeld, 1888; J. Langen, Geschichte der römischen Kirche, i. 802-818, Bonn, 1885; F. Gregorovius, Hist. of the City of Rome, ii. 215, 231-241, London, 1894; Schaff, Christian Church, iv. 231; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 47-48 (his letter to Leo is on pp. 210-212); Mann, Popes, i. 141-202, and the letters to Leo, pp. 498502; Bower, Popes, ii. ZO-89; Mihnan, Latin Christianity, ii. 311-317 et passim; Hauck, KD, i. 384-388 et passim; DCB, ii. 791-798.
Gregory UL: Pope 731-741. He was of Syrian origin, and was elects Mar. 18, 731, succeeding Gregory II. His first care was to establish better relations with Constantinople, and to induce Leo III. to abandon his iconoclastic position, though without success. The stubbornness of the emperor and the danger from the Lombards ultimately forced Gregory to widen the breach between new and old Rome. Of the measures which he took to strengthen himself against the Lombards, his alliance with the dukes of Benevento and Spoleto brought him into direct conflict with Liutprand, who appeared before Rome in the summer of 739. Gregory twice urgently besought the aid of Charles Martel; and although this was refused, and a com bination of circumstances delivered him from the Lombard attack, it was clear that only in alliance with the Franks could the papal see maintain its independence (see Papal States). He was more successful in the province of ecclesiastical ad ministration. He maintained the relations of his predecessor with Boniface, whom he made arch bishop in 732 with the right to organize new dio cases as he saw fit in Germany, and in 738-739 in duced him to give up his Saxon missionary plans and devote himself as papal vicar to the organization of the Bavarian and Alemannic churches (see Boniface, Saint). In the same spirit he at tempted to draw closer the ties between himself and the Anglo-Saxon Church, to attach the North Italian bishops more firmly to Rome, and generally to extend the scope of the papal jurisdiction. After Gregory II., he was undoubt edly the most important pope of the eighth century.
Bibliography: His Saropta are in MPL, lxxxix., and his Epistola: in MPL, xeviii. Consult: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, i. 416-426, Paris, 1886; Paulus biaconus, Hist. Lanpobatdorum, vi. 54-68, ed. Waits in MGH, Script. Per. Langob., i (1878), 12-187; Fredegar, Chronicon, Continuationes, xaii., ed. Kruech in MGH, Script. Per. Merov., ii (1888), 188-193; Jaffé, Regesta, i. 267-282; R. Bammaun, Die Poiitik der Pdpak, i. 209-218, Elberfeld, 1888; J. Laogen, Geschichte der römischen Kirchs, i. 818-828, Bonn, 1885; F. Gregorovius, Hist. of the City of Rome, ii. 241-284, London 1894; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 50-87; Schaff, Christian Church, iv. 231-232; Mann, Popes, i. 203-224; Bower, Popes, ii. 89-78; Milman, Latin Christianity, ii. 323, 382-388; Hauck, KD, i. 488-489 et passim; DCB, ii. 796-798.
Gregory IV.: Pope 827-844. He was a Roman of noble birth and had been priest of the basilica of St. Mark. His election was the first at which the Constitutio Lotharii was carried out, the Roman proceres acting as electors, and an imperial miamta confirming the choice before his consecration, to which another preliminary was the taking of an oath of fealty to the emperor. This dependence on the Frankish power lasted through the first years of his pontificate, and was only mitigated by the conflicts in the imperial family. Early in 833 he went to Germany at the summons of the young Lothair to work for peace in the imperial house and for the unity of the empire. But after efforts in which he was misunderstood by both parties his intervention proved fruitless, and he went back to Rome feeling that he had been tricked, and remained friendly to Louis as long as the latter lived, attempting again to work for peace upon his death, but with what success is not known. He labored with great liberality for the building and furnishing of churches and monasteries, and erected a strong fortress against the Saracens in the ruins of Ostia. He died in Jan., 844.
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Bibliography: His Egiatolm are in MPL, evi. Consult: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, ii. 73-85, Paris, 1892; Einhard, Annales, ed. Peru in MGH, Script., i (1826), 135-218; Theganus, Vita Hludmvics, chaps. AL, xlviii., lvi., ed. Pertz in MGH, Script., ii, (1829), 585-603; R. Baxmann, Die Politik der Päpste, i. 339-349, Elberfeld, 1868; B. Simson, Jahrbücher des deutschen Reicha unter Ludwig dem Frommen, i. 28b-286, ii. 32-61, 164 sqq., Leipsic, 1876; J. Langen, Geschichte der römischen Kirche, i. 816-822, Bonn, 1885; M. Heimbucher, Papstwahlen unter den Karolingern, pp. 144-148, Augsburg, 1889; F. Gregorovius, Hist. of the City of Rome, iii. 65-81, London, 1895; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 277 et passim; Bower, Popes, ii. 209-314; Milman, Luton Christianity, ii. 540-541; Hauck, KD, ii. 468-470.
Gregory V. (Bruno of Carinthia): Pope 996-999. He was a great-grandson of Otto the Great and uncle of the later emperor, Conrad II.; and this relationship, together with his German education, accounts for his partial subserviency to the views then prevalent at the imperial court. Under the influence, however, of the old curial traditions, he took the papal standpoint in the strife about the see of Reims (see Sylvester II., Pope), and at a synod at Pavia in the spring of 997 suspended all the French bishops who had taken a part in Arnulf's deposition, and declared energetically in favor of his restoration. He took strong moral ground also against the uncanonical marriage of Robert of France and against simony. Toward the end of 996 he was driven from Rome by Crescentius, the leader of the Roman nobles, who the next year set up John, archbishop of Piacenza, formerly the tutor of Otto III., as antipope (see John XVI.). In Feb., 998, Gregory was forcibly restored by Otto, after which he was wholly dependent upon the imperial power. At his death (Feb. 18, 999) the papacy was more dependent on the crown than at any time since the restoration of the Empire by Otto the Great.
Bibliography: >Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, ii. 261, Paris, 1892; Vita Nili, in ASB, Sept., vii. 336; Jaffé, Regesta, i. 489-495; Annales Hildesheimanaes, ed. Peru in MGH, Script., iii. (1839) IS-22, 42-70, 90-112; Annales Quedlinburiensea, in the acme, pp. 2269, 72-90; Theitmar, Chronicon, IV. xxvii., axg., xliii.-xliv., ed. Pertz in MGH, Script., iii. (1839) 723-781; R. Baxmann, Die Politik der Päpste, ii. 147-159, Elberfeld, 1869; J. Langen, Geschichte der römischcn Kirche, ii. 381-387, Bonn, 1892; Hauck, KD, iii. 259-264, 559; F. Gregorovius. Hist. of the City of Rome, iii. 410-462, London, 1895; Schaff, Christian Church, iv. 292, 294-295; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 374; Bower, Popes, ii. 329-331; J. Bryce, Holy Roman Empire, pp. 235-236 et passim, New York, 1904.
Gregory VI.: Antipope 1012. He was set up by the Crescentian party as antipope to Benedict VIII. (q.v.), who was elevated by the Tusculan party in 1012. Being compelled to flee from Rome, he betook himself to Germany, to King Henry II., but was by him constrained to lay down the ptwpal dignity. What became of him is not known.
Bibliography: Thietmar, Chronicon, vi. 61, ed. Peru in MGH, Script., iii. (1839); Jaffé, Regesta, i. 514; S. Hirsch, Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich 11., ii. 385, 390-391; F. Gregorovius, Hit. of the City of Rome, iv. 14, London, 1896; P. G. Wappler, Paps6 Benedict VIII., pp. 15, 19, 22, Leipsic, 1897.
Gregory VI. (Johannes Gratianus): Pope 1045-46. While arohprieat of San Giovanni a Ports Latina, he bought the papal dignity from Pope Benedict IX. by a written contract dated May 1, 1045, for the sum of 1,000 (or 2,000) pounds silver. It is probable that this downright simony was not publicly known at the outset, for Peter Damian (q.v.) enthusias tically congratulated Gregory on his elevation. Gregory's personal reputation in Rome was good and he also secured recognition abroad. However, when it became notorious in what way he had risen to the papacy, his continuance in the office was impossible. Benedict had reaffirmed his claim to the papacy and John, bishop of Sabina, was also trying to reign as Sylvester III. To remove the scandal of three popes and terminate the impossible situation, the Emperor Henry III. made his appearance in Italy in the autumn of 1046. Gregory was deposed at a synod at Sutri, Dec. 20, 1046, or per haps, for the sake of form, he was forced to depose himself. He was exiled as state prisoner to Ger many-probably to Cologne, where he appears to have died about the beginning of 1048. See Benedict IX. .
Bibliography: Jaffé;, Regesta, 1. 524-525, 11. 709; R. BSZ mann, Die Politik der Päpste, ii. 199 sqq., Elberfeld 1869; E. Steindorff, Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs enter Hen-
' rich 111., vols. i. ii., Leipsic, 1874-81; J. Langen, Go- schichte der römischen Rirche, vol. iii., Bonn, 1892; C. Mirbt, Die Publiziatik im Zeitalter Gre9ora VIZ., pp. 241, 381, 671 sqq., lxipaic, 1894; F. Gregorovius. H%at. of the City of Rome, iv. 50-55, London, 1898; Hefele, Concilien geschichte, iv. 707 sqq.; Hauck, KD, 570-579, 583-690; Neander, Christian Church, iii. 377, 380; Bower, Popes, ii. 341; Milman, Latin Christianity, iii. 231-233.Gregory VII. (Hildebrand): Pope 1073-8G;one of the greatest of popes and preeminently the rep resentative of their claims to temporal power. He was born in Tuscany probably near the beginning of the third decade of the eleventh century. Rao vacum (Rovacum) is given as the place of his birth. His father (Bonitos or Bo
Education. nizo) appears to have been of humble
Services station. The son went to Rome in to Leo 17L, his early years and received his educa
Victor II., tion at a school of the Lateran. When and Stephen Henry III. of Germany, after the synod
IX., Io48- of Sutri (1046), took Gregory VI. to
:og8. Germany with him (see Gregory VI.),
Hildebrand attended Gregory into exile, and thus by personal ob9ervation learned to know the land which was destined more than any other to influence his future policy. Thanks to
Bishop Bruno of Toul, who in 1048 succeeded Pope
Damasus II. as Leo IX., Hildebrand was brought back to Rome; although at that time he intended to spend the rest of his life as a monk. He ap pears, indeed, to have made profession in Rome, whether before or after the visit to Germany moat be left an unsettled question. Leo IX. ordained
Hildebrand subdeacon (1049), appointed him
"aeconomua" of the Roman Church, assigned .to him the direction of St. Paul's monastery at Rome,
and in 1054 employed him as legate in France.
Victor II. also showed appreciation of him, both admitting him to the papal, chancery and also sending him as envoy to France. When Stephen IX.
found it desirable to have the acquiescence of the
Empress Agues in his election, he committed this
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difficult mission to Bishop Anselm of Lucca and to Hildebrand. Nor did the result fail to justify this mark of confidence. How highly this pope esteemed Hildebrand appears further from the fact that when seized with forebodings of death, he solemnly bound the clergy and people of Rome to institute no new papal election before Hildebrand had returned from Germany. The pope's apprehensions proved, after his sudden death (Mar. 29, 1058), to be well founded. Bishop John of Villetri was immediately made pope (Benedict X.) by the Roman nobility. But he was unable to maintain his position, and this was Hildebrand's work (see Benedict X.). He heard the news of the occurrences in Rome at Florence on his way back from Germany, and he at once effected an understanding with Duke Godfrey concerning an opposition candidate; then he alienated a portion of the Roman people from Benedict, and won the German court to his plans. After the preliminaries, Bishop Gerhard of Florence was elected pope by the cardinals in conclave at Sienna, and enthroned in Rome as Nicholas II. on Jan. 24, 1059.
Hildebrand's influence during the administration of Nicholas is unmistakable; and he had his full share in the great events which mark this pontificate (the law as to papal election, 1059; alliance of the papacy with the Patarenes; Nicholas 11. treaty with the Normans; see Nicholas II.).
and Alex- He became archdeacon in ander II. 1059. When the pope's death (1061) Hildebrand imperiled the hardly won independence Chosen of the papacy from the Roman Pope, 1073. nobility and the German kingdom, it was Hildebrand again who knew how to act with promptness and success. The fact that Alexander II. (Anselm of Lucca) was elected, and finally asserted himself in opposition to Bishop Cadalus of Parma (Honorius II.), was made possible through Hildebrand's energy (see Alexander II:, POPE;
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