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aeries there is a complete parallelism (ordo idearum idem est ac ordo rerum). Finite things including individuals being only modes, God is no individual. Likewise succession in time or duration holds among existences or modes; but essence or substance is non-temporal, and God is eternal.

Man as an individual, being a mode, first sees things in relation to himself discretely, or the world of things as nalura nceturaUt. He thus has inadequate ideas by opinio or imaginatio. Ratio affords adequate ideas of the common agreements of things. Intuition is the full perception sub specie cett:rnitatis of God as infinite substance in immanent causation, or natura naturarts. The criterion of truth is truth itself; for the human mind in so far as it has a true idea is a part of the infinite divine intellect. Volition is a form of assent to, or dissent from, the idea, and is identical with it; just as will is identical with intellect. Man as a mode, being conditioned by the multiplicity of things about him, is in a state of constraint, having inadequate ideas (in the form of duration) of the complex self as affected, of the things a8'e4ing him, and of the affections or passions thus produced. This is commonly illustrated by the fact that the same thing appears differently to different men from different points of view. But man is active when he has adequate ideas, or when anything follows from his essence or nature clearly understood: he is passive when he has inadequate ideas. Desire or conscious appetite as an affection is the assertion of man's essence toward this greater freedom. The agreeable transition to a higher degree of perfection is the occasion of the passion of joy; the opposite is the occasion of sadness. Joy accompanied by the idea of its external cause is the passion of love; sadness so accompanied is hate. Impotence to prevail over one's passions is bondage, or the opposite of freedom. Evil, which is relative, is impediment. To get rid of a passion, i.e., an affection or a state of suffering, is to have a clear idea of it. This means to know all things as necessary. He who has such a knowledge of self and passions rejoices, and the idea of the external cause of such supreme joy involves the love of God, just as adversely the knowledge of all things as necessary involves the knowledge of God as immanent cause. This is what Spinoza calls the intellectual love to God conceived under the form of eternity. As God has only adequate ideas and is not subject to progressive perfection and passions, he cannot be affected by love or hate. In God, so far as he may be explained by the essence of man conceived " under the form of eternity," the loving subject and the object loved are one and the same; the intellectual love of God denotes absolute acquiescence by the divine in the law of his nature. The intellectual love of the mind to God is a part of that love, based upon the intellect which is part of the infinite divine intellect and therefore immortal, i.e., non-temporal. Virtue, which is the power to produce that which is according to one's essence, or nature, is not the reward of happiness but its own reward.

In the Theologico-politicus Spinoza argues for religious freedom so long as the interest of the State in good works is satisfied. He maintains that theology and philosophy have nothing in common, and XL-4

repudiates the authority demanded by the former over. the latter on the ground that theology deals with the anthropomorphic attributes and relations of God and philosophy with clear notions. In daring and imagination and fidelity to method, Spinoza ranks as one of the greatest philosophers. The practical lessons which his system taught, those of necessity and stoical resignation, were beat illustrated in his own life. Undermined by consumption, harassed by persecutors, and burdened by overwork, he was a model of patience and sweet kindliness. See PANTHEISM, § It.

BistioaxArax: The chief editions of the Opera are by H. E. G. Paulus, 2 vole., Jena, 180:;3, C. H. Bruder, 3 vole., Leipsic, 18438, J. van Vloten and J. P. Land, 2 vole., The Hague, 1883, and 3 vole., 189b-98; Eng. trawl. of the chief works by R. H. M. Elwes, 2 vole., London, 1883-84; Fr. trawl., by A. Saisset, 2 vole., Paris, 1842, 2d ed., 1881; by J. G. Prat, Paris, 1863, and by C. Appuhn, Paris, 1907 aqq. Further details respecting partial eds. and issues of aepajate works are given in the Pritiah Museum Catalogue, a.v., and in Baldwin, Dictionary, iii. 1, pp. 488-489 (followed by a very full general bibliography). Special works translated into English are Tractatua Eheolog%co-politicos (by R. Willie), London, 1659, reissues, 1737, and another, 1862, 1888; the Ethics, by W. H. White, London, 1813, 2d ed.. by A. H. Stirling, ib. 1894, by R. H. M. Elwea, ib. 1889, by H. Smith, Cincinnati, 1866, and selections by G. S. Fullerton, New York, 1892, 2d ed., 1894; Tractatua de in!ellectua emendatione by W. H. White, London, 1895; Priru;iplea of Descartes' Philosophy, London, 1907; and Short 'treatment on God. Man and his Well-Being; tranal. and ec!., with an Introduction and Commentary and a Life of Spinoza, by A. Wolf, New York, 1910.

As sources for a life consult Der 13riefvrechael des SPi7208a im Urtexte, ed. H. Ginsberg, Leipsic, 1876; Die Briefs mehrer Gelehrten an Benedict van Spinoza unrl desaen Antworten, ed. J. H. von Kirchmann, Berlin, 1871; and Lettrea ineditea en frarevais, tranalasted and annotated by J. G. Prat, Paris, 1884, 2d ed., 7885. Consult further: F. Pollock, Spinoza, his Life and Philosophy, 2d ed., London, 1899; M. Saverien, Hiat. des philoaophes modernea, Paris, 1760; A. Saintes, Hiat. de la vie et des ouvragea de B. Spinoza, ib. 1842; C. von Orelli, Spinoza's Lebeu and Lehre, 2d ed., Aarau, 1850; J. :B. Lehmann, Spinoza: rein Lebensbild and seine Philosophic, Wiirzburg, 1864: K. Fischer, Baruch Spinoza's Leben and Charakter, Heidelberg, 1865, 4th ed., 1898: S. S. Gbronel, Bar. d'Espiuoza in de lijat van, zyn tijd, Zalt-Bomme;l, 1871: J. van Vloten, Baruch d'Eapinoza, zijn Leven en s;;hrijten, 2d ed., Schliedam, 1871; J. E. Linter, Spinoza, London, 1873; H. J. Betz, Levenachechts van Baruch de Spinoza, The Hague, 1876; H. Ginsberg, Leben and Charakterbild B. Spinozas, Leipaic. 1876; J. Martineau, A Study of Spinoza, London, 1852; W. Bolin, Spinoza, Berlin, 1894; J. Freudenthal, Die Lebenspeachichte Spinozas, l:eipaic. 1899; P. L. Couchoud. Benoit de Spinoza, Paris, 1902; J. Freudenthal, Doe Leben Spinozaa, Stuttgart, 1904; S. von Dunin Borowaki, Der junge De Spinoza. Leben and Y7erdeganp im Lichte der Weltphiloaophie, Monster, 1910.

On the philosophy of Spinoza consult: C. Schasraehmidt, Descartes and Spinoza; arkundlichs Darstellung der Philosophic Beider, Bonn, 1550; B. Auerbach, Spinoza; ein Denkerleben, Mannheim, 1855; E. Saisaet, Prdcuraeura el disciples de Descartes, pp. 185-352, Paris. 1883; F. W. Barth, Einige Gedanken fiber Aneismus and fiber die Meinuragen des Spinoza, Bmadenburg, 1868; P. W. Schmidt, Spinoza and Schleierma:her, Berlin, 1868; M. Breech, B. v. Spinoza's System der Philoaophie mit eiuer Biographie Spinozas, ib. 1870; J. A. Froude, Short Studies on Great Subjects, London, 1873; R. Albert, Spinoza's L ehre aber die Existeraz einer Substanz, Dresden, 1875; G. Busolt, Die Grundziige der E'rkennEnisa-Theorie and Metaphysak Spinozas, Berlin, 1875; M. Arnold, Essays in Criticism, pp. 237-362. 3d ed., New York, 1876; H. J. Beta, Spinoza en de vrajheid, The Hague. 1877; T. Camerer, Die Lehre Spinozaa, Stuttgart, 1877; M. Dessauer, Der Socrates der Neuzeit and sein Gedankenachatz, Cothen, 1877; R. Flint, Anti-theistic Theories, pp. 353-37b, notes b47-bb2, Edinburgh and London, 1879; J. Martineau,