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were concerned with the transmission and the nature of the text. He soon came to believe in various revisions of the New-Testament text, strove after more certain standards for fixing the value of particular manuscripts, and discerned the importance of patristic citations. This new attitude respecting the text involved the germinating principles for a new valuation of the canon. To this problem was devoted his Abhandlung von der freien Untersuehung des Kanon8, nebst Antwort au

.f die tilbingische Vertheidigung der Apokalypsis (4 parts, Halle, 1771-76). He came to recognize the fact that the canon of the Old Testament, like that of the New, underwent a historical development and grew up by degrees, and hence may not pass for " inspired " in the traditional sense and has not, therefore, the " authority " heretofore ascribed to it. This principle of the liberty of Christians to deal with the canon, involved the further task of gaining a criterion for gaging the value of the particular constituents of such a collection, offering as such the test of the presence in the books of the spirit of Christ. This led him to recognize in the Old Testament and the New two stages of religion, the Jewish national, and the universal religion of Christianity, and this showed the way to a wholly new explanation of Scripture. He established the point that the doctrine of Jesus and the apostles contains Jewish conceptions of only synchronous value. The problem of scientific exegesis is to determine what belongs to these " local " and " temporal " elements. So early as 1760, he gave expression to these maxims, and applied the same in De dtemoniacis, quorum in evangeliis fat mentio (Halls, 1760). Semler further developed the idea of utilizing Talmud and Apocrypha in exegesis.

With Semler there began a new epoch in ecclesiastical history. His historical labors exhibit him both as editor (TertuWani opera, 6 vols., Halle, 1769-76; Apparatus ad libros aymbolicos ecclesim Lutherana, 1775), and as critic (Commentarii historica de antiquo Christianorum statu, 2 vols., 17711772; Versuch eines fruchtbaren Auszugea der Kirchengeachichte des N. T., 3 vole., 1773-78). His guiding principles include constant return to the sources, the importation of purely natural factors in the history of the Church, employment of psychology to aid in the understanding of history, and recognition that development has taken place in the history of the Church. This new mode of survey showed its most pronounced reaction in the sphere of ecclesiastical dogma. One of Semler's most important theses was his distinction between theology and religion. By means of this distinction he created free course for his criticism and thereby liberated scientific research from the theological odium, his purpose being to grapple with the Christian faith itself. Another main idea of Semler's is that in all ages there has been a diversity of theological and religious views, and that this discrepancy exists of right. Consequently all doctrinal schemes are mere attempts to comprehend the truth, with the results that the practise of appraising the dogma of one's own church in distinction from that of other ecclesiastical fellowships was no longer to be upheld, the basis for a propaganda among adher-

ents of an alien confession vanished away, and even the gap between Christianity and non-Christian religions became lessened by coordination of all into the divine cosmic, plan. The task of defining the value and effective scope of the theology recog nized by the Church, and the relation of this ecclesi astical doctrine to the asserted freedom of the in dividual, Semler sought to resolve by distinguishing public religion i.e, Christian regulations in the way of external ordinances-from private religion, i.e., the particular Christian's religious convictions. Semler excited great surprise among his contem poraries by his attitude toward the practical life of the Church. When the agitation over the " Wolfen biittel Fragments " (q.v.) reached its height, Sem ler undertook to controvert the " Fragmentists " with keen polemics. Semler's attitude in various disputes was the necessary result of the fundamental thoughts of his theology. Yet he was no construc tor, nor did he clearly define for himself the conse quences of his own formal postulations. Indeed, he himself often, fell far short of exercising the objec tivity that he demanded abstractly; and his direct interest was much more pronounced than he per sonally admitted. He was far more accessible to conservative sentiments than could be expected, especially in his labors as critic. Similarly, the very heaviness of his style is due to his continual strug gling with new material and to his inability to wait for publication until he had completely mastered the subject-matter. His real merit lay in assisting to pilot theology into a new phase of development by importing into theology the historical mode of contemplation. In its final decade, Semler's liter ary activity shows a change in his interests, as he busied himself with natural sciences, alchemy, mys tical theosophy, and freemasonry (Unpartheaiache Sammlung zur Geschichte der Rosenkreuzer, 4 parts, Leipsic, 1786,88). At the same time he did not abandon theology (Letztes Glaubensbekenntnis,1792). CARL MIRBT.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Semler's autobiography was published in two parts, Halle, 1781-82. Consult further: J. G. Eichhom, Allgemeine Bibliothek der biblischen Literatur, v. 1 201, Leipsie, 1793; Diestel, in Jahrbitcher fiir deutsche Theologie, xii (1887), 471-498; P. Gastrow, Johann Salomo Semler in seiner Bedeutung far die Thtologie mit besonderer Beracksichtipuig seines Streites mit a. E. Leasing, Giessen, 1905; the work by G. Karo with the same title, Berlin, 1905; H. Hoffmann, Die Theologie Semlera, Leipsie, 1905; L. Zscharnack, Leasing and Semler. Ein Beitrag zur Entatehungapeschicke des Rationaliemue and der kritischen Theologie, Giessen, 1905; F. Huber, Johann Salomo Semter, seine Bung far die Theologie. Berlin, 1906; ADB, a avtiii. 698-704.

SEMPRINGHAM, ORDER OF. See GILBERT, SAINT, OF SEMPRINOBAM.

SEN, BESHAV CHANDRA: Hindu Theist; b. at Calcutta Nov. 19, 1838; d. there Jan. 8, 1884. As a boy he was imperious in character and selfwilled, not especially religious in spirit, but amid the low moral condition of the times he stood out as a pure-minded boy, slay but self-contained. As he passed into youth he became austere in his habits, a vegetarian, showing an antipathy toward all frivolities, and absorbed in philosophical and religious subjects. It was at this time that Christian literature began to make its deep impression on his mind.