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the Persian Arabic is, of course, not to be considered here).

VL Relation to Other Families of Languages: So far as present knowledge goes, it is doubtful whether the Semitic family is genetically connected with any other in the world except the Egyptian and Cushite groups. Various unsuccessful attempts have been made to show a relationship between it and the Indo-European. The case is different with the Egyptian, between whose stock of sounds, personal pronouns, numerals, and verbal forms, and the Semitic there is a remarkable resemblance; but the great differences between the two families in other respects make great caution necessary in comparing them. There is a similar resemblance between the structure of the Semitic verb and that of the Cushite group of languages (the Galls, Saho, and others, near Abyssinia), but nothing definite. At most, an original Semitic-Hamitic family may be conjectured out of which these two have grown; but in that case their separation took place so long ago, their paths since that time have been so different, and the traces of kinship have been so far obliterated, that little can be got from a comparison between them, except in the way of reconstructing the history of the original family. One main obstacle in the comparison of Semitic words with others is the triliteralism of stems of the former; and it has therefore been attempted to reduce these to biliterals, but hitherto with indifferent success. It need not be denied that this problem may hereafter be solved, and comparisons instituted between Semitic and other families that may be of service

BIBISOGRAPHY: General works are: F:. Littrb, Comment dans deem situations hiatonques Us s6miUs entrhrent en compitition avec In Aryens pour fh4pimonnie du monde, Paris, 1879; F. Delitsach, Wo lap das Paradies t Leipsic,1881; F. Hommel, Die Semiten and ihre Bedeutunp far die Kul turpeschichte. den Menxhheit, Leipsio, 1881; idem, Die semitischen Vblker and Sprachen, ib. 1881; F. Lenormant, Lee Oripines de Mist. d'apras la Bible et lee traditions des peuples orientaux, 2 vols., Paris, 188082, Eng. trawl. of vol. i., Beginnings of Hist., New York, 1882; T.. N81deke, Sketches from Eastern History (" Some Char acterietics of the Semitic Race "), New York, 1892; G. A. Barton, Sketch of Semitic Origins, New York, 1902; and the publications of the Congress of Arts and Sciences (St. Louis Exposition), vol. iii., Boston, 1906.

On the science of language consult: H Steinthal, Charakteriatik den hauptaachlichaten T ypen des Sprachbaues. Berlin, 1860· F. Max MOller, Science of Language, New York, 1865; W. D. Whitney, 'Lanfluape and the Science of Language, New York, 1873; F. W. Farrar, Fam ilies of Speech, London, 1870; A. Hovelacque, La Lin· puistique, Paris, 1878; A. H. Sayce, introduction to the Science of Language, London, 1880; J. Byrne, Principles of the Structure of Language, London, 1885; H. Paul, Principles of the Mist. of Language, London, 1891.

On Semitic comparative grammar, lexicography, and Isnguage·hietory consult: T. Benfey, Ueber das Verhal6nwe den dgyptiwhen Sprache sum semitischen Sprochatamm, Leipsie, 1844; E. Renan, Hist. pl'n&ale et systlme compart des lanpues sdmitiques, Paris, 1863; F. Miller, Indogermanisch and semitisch, Vienna, 1870; F. W. N. Philippi, Statue construct. im Htbraiachen, Weimar, 1871; E. Schrader, in ZDMG, xxvii. 3 (1873); A. Koch, Der semitische Infinitiv, Stuttgart, 1874; W. Wright, Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages, London and New York 1890 T. N81deke, in Encyclopddia Britannica, xai. 641-8W; idem, Beitrape sw asmitisehen Spnochroissenachaft, Strasburg, 1904· item, Ne88 B eitrdpe sun semi tischen S prachwissenrchafl, ib.19m: H. Ewald. Abhandlunp fiber die peschichtliche P olge den semitischen Sprachen, G8t-

tingen, 1871; C. Abel, Sprachmiasenxhafiliche Abhand lunpen, Leipsio, 1884; A. H. Huisings, Analogy in the Semitic Language#, Baltimore, 1891; J. Birth, Die Nomi naldildunp in den s emitisrhen Sprachen, Leipeie,1894; idem, Sprachwissenachaftlichs Untersuchunpen, i b. 1907; O. E. Lindberg, Verpleichende G rommatik den semitixhsn Spra chen. Gothenburg, 1897 sqq.,,,A Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions: a comprehensive Collection for the Study of Comparative Semitic Philology, Cambridge, 1898; H. Zimmem, Verpleichende G rammatik den semitiachen Sprachen, Berlin, 1898; E. Kbnig, Hebrdisch and Semitisch. Prolegomena and Grundlinien einer Geaehichte den semitischen Sprachen, Berlin, 1901; idem, Hebrdischee and aramaisches WBrterbuch sum Alien Testament wit Einschaltunp and Analyse aller ashwererksnnbarenFormen. D eutunaderEipennamensowie den maseoretischen Randbemerkunpen and einem deulsch hebraischen Wortrepister, Leipsic, 1901-10; G. Dalman, Grammatik des jadischen p alaatinischen Aramdisch, Leipsic, 1905; W. Gesenius, Hebraiaches and a ramaisches Handworterbuch, 14 th ed. by F. Buhl and H. Zimmern, Leipsie, 1905; H. L. Strack, Grammatik des biblisch aramaischen, L eipsie, 1905; F. Brown, S. R. Driver, C. A. Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the O. T., Boston, etc., 1906; C. Brookelmann, Grurudrias den verpleichenden Grammatik den semitMchen Sprarhen; part I., Berlin and New York, 1908; idem, Semitische Sprnchwisaenschaft, Leipsie, 1910; L. Belleli, An Independent Examination of as Assuan and Elephantine Aramaic Papyn with eleven Plates and taro Appendices on sundry Items, London, 1909; Beitrdpe sun christlich-arabischen Literaturpeschichts, Leipsic, 1909; M. van Berchem, Arabieche Inschriften, ib. 1909; idem, Materiaua poursun Corpus inscriptionum Arubicarum, Paris, 1910; J. P. Alone. Short Manual (with Vocabulary) of the Amharic Language, London, 1910; E. H. Armbruster, Initia Amharica. An Introduction to spoken Amharic, ib. 1910; H. Bauer, Die Tempora im SemitiaeAen, Leipaic, 1910; C. Besold, Verbalsufxforrnen ale Alterakriterien babylonisch-aesyriecher Inschriften, Heidelberg, 1910; Fabre d'Olivet, La Lanpue h6braique r estituts, d le vhritable sense des mots hAbreuat ritabli d prouvi, Paris, 1910; J. B. Chabot. Les Lanpuea ei lee liturntures aramdennas, ib..1910.

SEMLER, semrler or aemrler, JOHANN SALOMO: Pioneer in Biblical criticism; b. at Saalfeld (6B m. s.w. of Leipsic) Dec. 18, 1725; d. at Halle Mar. 4, 1791. His father was archdeacon at Saalfeld, and introduced the son to the circles of Pietism (q.v.) in early youth. But young Semler, already a wide reader and possessed of a phenomenal memory, soon felt a profound disinclination toward all manner of Pietism, only by degrees; however, becoming conscious of his fundamental objection to this movement. At the University of Halle, which he visited in 1743, he was especially drawn toward Siegmund Jakob Baumgarten (q.v.), whose erudition appealed to him, and there took his master's degree in 1750. In the same year he became an unsalaried professor in the gymnasium at Coburg, where he gave instruction in the elements of Arabic, and was also editor of the Coburg Staata- and GeZehrtenzeit ung. The year 1751 brought him the call of a professorship in history and Latin poetry at Altdorf. But in 1752, at the instance of Baumgarten, he was called to Halle as professor of theology, where there opened up for him a field of labor suitable to his talents. After Baumgarten's death (1757), he grew more free and spontaneous, and a few years later he was one of the most celebrated theologians of Germany.

Semler's critical investigation was directed first of sill to the Scriptures. What he undertook was unheard of in German theology, yet there was no doubt of his right to make Scripture the object of scientific research. , His Biblical investigations