Turkey

TURKEY. I. Statistical and Political. II. Protestant Missions. Other Missions E5 3).

The Empire; the Governing Race (§ 1).
General (§ 1).
Bible Societies (§ 4)
Constitution; Ecclesiastical Control American Board (§ 2).
Results (§ 5).

(§ 2), III. Roman Catholic Missions.

I. Statistical and Political: [Turkey is a composite

empire, si-ice 1908 a constitutional monarchy, hav

ing possessions or dependencies in three continents

-Europe, Asia, and Africa. Its principal bound

aries are: on the north Austria, Servia, Bulgaria, and the Black Sea; on the northeast z. The and east Russia, Persia, and the Per

Empire; sian Gulf; on the south the Indian

the Govern- Ocean, the Libyan Desert, and the

ing Race. Sahara; and on the west, in Europe,the

Ionian Sea and Adriatic. Its posses

sions are in Africa, Egypt, Tunis, and Tripoli until

1911, when Italy annexed it: Its area was estimated

(1909) at 1,565,000 square miles, and its population, principally Mohammedan, at 35,400,000. For the distribution of the population among the faiths professed only estimates are available. Thus for the lEgean Islands the numbers given (1909) are

296,800 Christians, 27,200 Mohammedans; for Asia

Minor, 7,179,900 Mohammedans, 576,200 Armeni ans, 972,300 other Christians, 184,600 Jews and others; for Armenia, 1,795,800 Mohammedans,

480,700 Armenians, 165,200 other Christians, 30,700

Jews and others. The number of mosques in the

empire are 2,120; of Mohammedan clergy, 11,600,

of whom the Sheik-ul-Islam is chief.] The Otto man Turks who founded the Turkish Empire first appeared in Asia Minor in the thirteenth century

a small tribe of 400 families-coming from Central

Asia. As conquerors and as rulers over conquered races they have never been surpassed. At the be ginning of the fourteenth century they had estab lished a kingdom under Othman, and this dynasty has ruled in an unbroken succession for more than

600 years. In 1326 they captured Brusa and made it their capital. Before the end of the century they had extended their empire to the Danube in Europe and in 1453 they captured Constantinople. In 1529 they were besieging Vienna. Before this, in 1517,

they had made themselves masters of Syria, Arabia,

and Egypt, and Sultan Selim had won for his house the califate of Islam. The Ottoman Turks were already converted. to Mohammedanism when they entered upon their career of conquest, and for 400 years the constitution of the government has been strictly Mohammedan. Since the time of Selim the claim of the sultans to be the califs of the Mohammedan world has been generally recognized on account o£ their ability to maintain it and their possession of the holy cities, in spite of the fact that the prophet himself declared that the calif must be an Arab of the tribe of KQreish. The sultans have always been absolute autocrats, and the law of the empire has been the Shkraat, which is based upon the Koran, the traditions, and the decisions of the distinguished doctors of the law. Under pressure from the powers of Europe a body of civil law based upon the Code Napolkon was added to the Shkraat some fifty years ago and courts established to administer it-but the results have been very unsatisfactory and the government has never been more arbitrary and tyrannical than during the past thirty years-and never more fanatically Mohammedan.

July, 1908, seemed to mark the dawn of a new era in Turkey. The Ottoman Turks had seen the power of their empire declining and its extent diminishing for 200 years, while the power and influence of Christian Europe dominated the world.

The palace camarilla which ruled in z. Constitu- the name of Sultan Abd-ul-Hamid had tion; Eccle- not only oppressed and massacred the

siastical Christian subjects of the empire, but Control. had crushed the spirit of the Turks. Some 50,000 of the more intelligent and enlightened of them had been put to death or exiled. Many had fled to Europe. There they or ganized a revolution which is expected to transform Turkey into a free, constitutional empire-with equal rights for all. The watchwords of the new

regime are liberty, equality, fraternity, and justice. The sultan was not at first deposed, but was made to accept the constitution-which recognizes the sovereignty of the dynasty of Othman, Mohammedanism as the religion of the State, and the sultan as calif of Islam, but promises religious liberty, freedom of the press, freedom of speech, equal rights, and equal duties for all races and religions-secured by a parliament where all are equally represented and by a reformed judiciary. In 1909 an attempt was made to subvert the constitution, but Abd-ul-Hamid was shown to have been concerned in the attempt and was deposed; and his brother, Mohammed Y., was raised to the throne. This revolution is the work of the same Ottoman Turks as have ruled the empire for 600 years. They constitute about one-fifth of the population of the empire and hope that a strong and regenerated Turkey will restore their influence in the Mohammedan world. It remains to be seen how rat it is possible to graft these Christian principles upon Mohammedanism and how far the Christian nationalities in the empire will consent to give up the special privileges which have been assured to them ever since the capture of Constantinople, and have served to protect their national churches from destruction. The Arabs, Albanians, Kurds, and other Mohammedan races have never loved the Turks, while the Christian races have always hoped and prayed for the decay and disappearance of the Turkish rule. In 1909 in Constantinople, officially recognized by the Porte, there were patriarchs of the Armenian, Armenian Catholic, Latin and Orthodox (Greek) churches, the exarch of the Bulgarian church, the vekil of the Protestants, and the Haham Bashi of the Jews. They are appointed by the sultan and have considerable civil as well as ecclesiastical authority over their flocks. In these organizations political interests have often taken the place of the concerns of religion, and, except the Protestants and Catholics, none of these religious bodies have done anything since the Turkish conquest to propagate their faith. As these communities are protected by European powers it will be impossible for the Turks to deprive them of these privileges by force, and their political interests and aspirations will lead them to cling as far as possible to these separate organizations.

II. Protestant Missions:

General.

The Protestant Reformation in Europe was not without influence in Turkey, and some of the highest ecclesiastics of the Orthodox church were more or less in sympathy with it. But the people were too ignorant and too isolated to be reached by say movement from without; and Protestantism was practically unknown to them until the establishment of Protestant missions in Turkey, early in the present century. These missions have been confined almost exclusively to the Jews sad the Oriental Christians. Thirty-one societies are engaged, including the Church Missionary Society, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, the London Jews Society, the Established Church of Scotland, the United Free Church of Scotland, the Irish Presbyterian Mission, the Palestine Church Missionary Society, the British Syrian School Society, the Lebanon Schools Committee, the Society for Promoting Female Education in the East. All of these are British organizations; and in addition to these there are several independent enterprises, mostly schools, conducted by the English. The American societies are the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, the Presbyterian Board of Missions, the Reformed Presbyterian Mission, the Christian (Campbellite) Mission, the Society of Friends (American and English). There are also a number of publication societies, both English and American, which have agents in Turkey or work through the missionaries. The most important are the British and Foreign Bible Society, the American Bible Society, the American Tract Society, the London Religious Tract Society. The German missions are the Kaiaerswerth Deaconeases, the Krishona Missions, and the Jerusalem Verein. These societies employ about 450 missionaries and assistant missionaries, and about 1,800 native assistants. The whole number of Protestants in Turkey is estimated at 100,000, of whom about 25,000 are communicants.

American Board.

First of these organizations stands the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, which originally represented the Presbyterian, Reformed (Dutch), and Congregational churches of America, but since 1870 only the last. The work of this board in Turkey was commenced in 1819, when two missionaries, Messrs. Fisk and Parsons, were sent out to begin work at Jerusalem. This mission was never fairly established, but in 1823 the Syrian mission was commenced at Beirut. The Armenian mission was founded at Constantinople in 1831, and the Jewish mission in 1832, the Assyrian mission in 1849, and the Bulgarian in 1858. Several missionaries have at times been appointed to work among the Mohammedans, but without any permanent result. There was a time, after the Crimean war, when the government tolerated work for the Mohammedans and there were a few converts. But in 1865 this toleration ceased, and for the last thirty years it has been impossible far a Moslem to abjure his faith and remain in the country. It remains to be seen how far the religious liberty now promised will be extended to Mohammedans. The board has now four distinct missions in Turkey the Euro pean, Western, Central, and Eastern Turkey missions; and its work is chiefly among the Armenians, Bulgarians, and Greeks. The missionaries at first had no intention of establishing an independent Protestant church in Turkey, but sought rather to reform the existing Christian churches. The peculiar constitution of the Turkish empire, which not only gave civil power to the patriarchs, but treated as an outlaw every, person not belonging to some estab lished church, together with the violent animosity of the ecclesiastics against Evangelical teaching, finally forced the missionaries to found a Protestant church, or, more properly, a Protestant civil community, which was recognized by the Porte in 1850, through the influence of England. In 1910 the American Board had in Turkey 354 male and female missionaries. They also supported, wholly or in part, 1,355 native pastors, preachers, teachers,

40
etc. They have 353 stations and sub-stations, with 16,031 communicants. They have 411 schools of all grades, with about 20,000 pupils in all. They have printed and circulated, since the establishment of the missions, over 3,000,000 books. There are seven colleges connected with the missions of the board--at Aintab, Kharpoot, Marsovan, Marash, Tarsus, Smyrna, and Constantinople--with 1,461 students. The colleges at Constantinople and Marash are for girls.

3. Other Missions.

The mission to Syria was transferred by the American Board in 1870 to the Presbyterian Church, and reports the following statistics for 1910: missionaries, 38; native laborers, 194; churches, 29; communicants, 2,819; theological and high schools, 9; high schools for girls, 3; common schools, 91; printed from beginning, 23,395,410 books. The Reformed (Dutch) Church Missions. in America in 1894 adopted a mission which had been started as an independent work in Arabia, about the Persian Gulf. There are thirteen missionaries, and their object is to reach the Mohammedans with the Gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ. The missions to the Jews in Turkey are conducted by the London Jews Society, which has 5 stations, 7 missionaries, 2 medical missionaries, 6 helpers, and 6 schools; the church of Scotland, which has 5 stations, 5 missionaries, 1 medical missionary, 6 helpers, and 6 schools; the Free Church of Scotland, which has 2 stations, 2 missionaries, 2 helpers, and 3 schools. In all there are four organized churches. It is supposed that the wives of the missionaries are not included in these statistics, as they are in those which precede them.

4. Bible Societies.

The British and Foreign Bible Society has eleven depots and depositories in Turkey, with a central agency at Constantinople. It now employs thirty-three colporteurs. It commenced work in Turkey about 1806. It has circulated the Bible in thirty-five languages, to the number of about 2,500,000 volumes. The American Bible Society has a central agency at Constantinople. Its most important branch is at Beirut; but it operates through all the stations of the American missions. It now employs 50 colporteurs. It circulates the Bible in 26 languages, and the total number of volumes circulated since 1858 is about 750,000. Both of these societies have worked in such close connection with the missionary societies, and have so generally depended upon the missionaries for their translations and for the work of publication, that it is impossible to say exactly how large a proportion of the volumes reported above is included in the statistics already given in connection with the missions. Up to 1858 the missionaries acted as agents of the American Bible Society. Robert College, founded 1863, at Constantinople, and the Syrian Protestant College at Beirut, are independent, endowed institutions, not connected with any missionary society; but they are the fruit of missionary work. Robert College has 45 professors and instructors, and 450 students. Its course of instruction is similar to that of the best American colleges. The Syrian Protestant College has a medical department and a commercial school in addition to its college course, and was founded in 1866. It has 60 professors and instructors, and 700 students. These colleges are both American institutions, and in both the language of instruction is English. Their students represent almost all the languages, religions, and nationalities of the East.

5. Results.

Of late years most of the missions in Turkey have given prominence to medical work, and a number of hospitals have been established at the mission stations. The most important connected with American missions are at eirut, Aintab, Cæsarea, Marsovan, Van, and Bahrein, and there are dispensaries for medical aid at most of the stations. This work reaches all races and religions, and its influence is constantly increasing. The real influence of Protestant missions in Turkey can not be measured by any such statistics as those given above. It has been not only religious, but intellectual, social, and political. It has modified the character of the Oriental churches, and to some extent reformed them. It has carried Western ideas and Christian civilization into the darkest corners of the empire. Many English statesmen familiar with Turkish affairs have declared that American missionaries have accomplished more for the regeneration of the East than all other influences combined. Lord Stratford de Redcliffe and Lord Shaftesbury may be mentioned, among others, as having expressed this opinion.

III. Roman Catholic Missions:

Neither the Roman Catholic authorities nor the French embassy at Constantinople are ready to furnish the statistics of Roman Catholic missions in Turkey; although an offer was made to publish what they might furnish, without note or comment. Without such statistics, only general statements can be made. All Roman Catholic missions in Turkey were, until recently, political agencies of the French Government, and as such received pecuniary aid and diplomatic support. In return for this they were expected to propagate and sustain French influence under all circumstances. The principal Roman Catholic organizations in Turkey are the Lazarists, Mechitarists, Franciscans, Dominicans, Capuchins, Carmelites, Jesuits, and various organizations of Sisters of Charity. For many years past they have made but little apparent progress in winning converts from other Christian churches, and they have not attempted to convert Mohammedans. For a time the Bulgarians, after their conversion to Christianity, inclined toward Rome; but they finally united with the Eastern Church; and only a small body of Paulicians are now Roman Catholics. Since the commencement of the conflict between the Bulgarians and the Greek Patriarch, great efforts have been made to win the Bulgarians over to Rome; and, since the expulsion of the religious orders from France, this mission has been largely reenforced, and French protection has been offered to converts, especially in Macedonia. The results have thus far been small. In Albania there is a strong Catholic element. Among the Greeks no progress has been made for fifty years. There is a rich and influential Armenian Catholic Church in Turkey, which during the eighteenth century suffered terrible persecution;

but this church has during the past few years been distracted by dissensions, growing out of an effort, on the part of Rome, to Latinize it. Several thousand families have gone back to the old Armenian church.

Among the Arabic-speaking races, the Roman Catholics have won over many of the Jacobites, control the Maronites of Syria, have some influence among the Greeks and Copts, and of course maintain establishments in Tripoli and Tunis. In addition to the native Roman Catholics, there is all through the empire a large foreign population, which is generally Roman Catholic and contributes to the support of the missions. In fact, much of the influence of this faith in Turkey has always come from the diplomatic, consular, and commercial establishments maintained here by Roman Catholic countries. The native Christians have always been taught to feel, that, in becoming Roman Catholics, they became in some sense Europeans, and shared in some degree the honor and immunities of foreigners. In addition to these social and political advantages afforded to converts, the Roman Catholic missions have founded churches, schools, hospitals, and orphanages, monasteries, convents, and seminaries. Their schools have always been of a low order; but they have taught the French language, and such accomplishments as took the fancy of the people. Until the establishment of Protestant missions, they were, no doubt, the best schools in the country. Of late years, whatever progress has been made has been due chiefly to the work of the Sisters of Charity in hospitals, orphanages, schools, and house-to-house visitation. They are to be found everywhere; and, although generally ignorant and bigoted, they are indefatigable workers, well trained to obedience, self-sacrificing, and wholly devoted to these works of Christian charity.

The number of Roman Catholic missionaries in the empire, native and foreign, male and female, including the ecclesiastics of the native Roman Catholic churches, can not be less than 3,000. There is no means of estimating the annual expenditure, but the Roman Catholic missions have certainly been more successful than the Protestant in "living on the country." They depend much less, in proportion to their numbers, upon foreign aid.

It is not easy for a Protestant to form an estimate of the success of Roman Catholic missions. They have no doubt planted the church so firmly in this empire that it can stand by itself without foreign aid; but they have done nothing toward converting the Mohammedans, and have made no progress in winning over the oriental churches to a union with Rome. They have not essentially weakened these churches, nor have they made converts enough to enter into any rivalry with them.

George Washburn.

Bibliography: Besides the literature under Armenia; Syria; and Syrian Church, consult on the history and life: J. W. Zinkeisen, Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches in Europa, 7 vols., Hamburg, 1840-63; J. L. Farley, Modern Turkey, London, 1872; idem, Turks and Christians, ib. 1876; J. Baker, Turkey in Europe, ib. 1877; T. Milner, The Turkish Empire; Sultan, Territory and People, ib. 1877; E. L. Clark, The Races of European Turkey, Edinburgh, 1878; idem, Turkey, New York, 1883; E. J. Davies, Life in Asiatic Turkey, London, 1879; J. Creagh, Armenians, Koords, and Turks, 2 vols., ib. 1880; H. F. Tozer, Turkish Armenia and Eastern Asia Minor, ib. 1881; J. M. N. Brodhead, Slav and Moslem, Historical Sketches, Aiken, 1894; S. L. Poole, The Mohammedan Dynasties, Westminster, 1894; R. Davey, The Sultan and his Subjects, New York, 1897; Mrs. W. M. Ramsay, Everyday Life in Turkey, London, 1903; L. M. Garnett, Turkish Life in Town and Country, London and New York, 1904; idem, Turkey of the Ottomans, ib. 1911; M. Sykes, Dar-ul-Islam; a Record of a Journey through ten of the Asiatic Provinces of Turkey, New York, 1904; W. S. Monroe, Turkey and the Turks. An Account of the Lands, Peoples and Institutions of the Ottoman Empire, Boston, 1907, London, 1908; G. F. Abbot, Turkey in Transition, New York, 1909; L. Collar, Histoire de l'empire ottoman jusqu'� la r�volution de 1909, Paris, 1910. And on missions and churches: The Star in the East; Quarterly Record of the Progress of Christian Missions within the Turkish Empire, London, 1883; Hilaire, La France catholique en orient durant les trois derniers si�cles, Paris, 1902; E. von M�linen, Die Lateinische Kirche im t�rkischen Reiche, 2d ed., Berlin, 1903; W. A. Essery, The Ascending Cross. Some Results of Missions in Bible Lands, London, 1905; J. E. H., One Hundred Syrian Pictures, Illustrating the Work of the Syrian Mission, ib. 1903; C. Lagier, Byzance et Stamboul: nos droits francais et nos missions en orient, Paris, 1905; N. Jorga, Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches, 3 vols., Gotha, 1907-10; J. L. Barton, Daybreak in Turkey, Boston, 1909.