INNOCENT: The name of thirteen popes and one antipope.
Innocent I.: Pope 402 (or 401)-417. According to the apparent meaning of Jerome (Epist. cams.), he was the son of his predecessor Anastasius I., and not, as the LAer pontificalis states, from Albano. He was unanimously elected Dec. 21, 401, according to most of the lists, or early in 402, accord.. ing to Prosper (Chron., MGH, Auct. ant. ix., 1892, p. 465). The spirit in which he took up his office is indicated in his letter announcing his election to Anysius of Thessalonica, in which he calls the Roman bishop "the ruler of the Church of God." This Was not, indeed, a new claim; but Innocent enforced it for fifteen years with new boldness and skill, and to a certain extent in a new form. The theory is now first met with that the rank of a bishop is to be determined by the part played by Peter in the foundation of his see, thus giving Rome the suzerainty over the entire We§t, and a precedence over the patriarchates of the East. Still more important are the consequences which Innocent deduces from his theory. Siricius had already claimed the supreme right of legislation and supervision over the whole Church; Innocent enforced this claim upon Italian, Gallic, Spanish, and Macedonian bishops. He was the first who formally claimed the functions of a supreme judge, the right to create new ecclesiastical offices, and the power of ultimate decision as to doctrine. The first-named he assumes in the well-known letter to Victricius of Rouen (Feb. 15, 404, Epist. ii.), insisting that the judicial decisions of synods are to be referred to the apostolic see, and asserting the right to receive appeals against the decisions of episcopal synods. The second of these claims he put forth when he erected the vicariate of Thessalonica, between which place and Rome there had been a close connection in the pontificates of Damasus and Siricius, but Innocent first gave it the form of strict dependence in his decretal of June 17, 412, naming the metropolitan of eastern Illyria vicar of the pope, practically a new office, though the title tricarautt was introduced into official phraseology by Boniface I. The third claim, that of the supreme teaching-office, he formally put forth in the Pelagian controversy. on the pretext of the letters addressed to him by the synods of Carthage and Mileve, as well as by five African bishops, in 416. In his replies (Epist.
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Bibliography: His Epiafolm e6 decreta are in MPL, xx. Sources for a life are: Liber pontificalis, ed. L. Duchesne, i. 220-224, Paris, 1886, ed. T. Mommsen in MGH, Gest. pont. Rom. i (898), 88-90; P. Coustant, Ponhficum Romanorum . . . epistoiw, ed. C. T. G. Schoenemann, f. 495-661, Göttingen, 1796; Jaffé, Regesta, i. 44-49; and the Hist. eccl. of Socrates, VII., ix, and of Sozomen, VIII., xxvi., IX., vu. Consult: B. Jungmann, Diaeertationes eelectw, ii. 207-212, Regensburg, 1881; H. Grisar, Geschichte Rome und der Päpste im Mittelalter, i. 59-7', 248-288, Freiburg, 1898; Bower, Popes, i. 131-149; Mihnan, Latin Christianity, 134-139, 176-179; Neander, Christian Church, ii. 645-647 et passim; DCB, iii. 243-249; Ceillier, Auteurs sacrés, vii. 506-528, cf. iv. 655-666.
Innocent II. (Gregorio de' Papareschi): Pope 1130-43. He was made cardinal deacon of St. Angelus by Paschal II., went to France with Gelasins II. when the latter was obliged to seek protection in that country, was employed in difficult missions under Calixtus II., and was one of the papal delegates who formulated the Concordat of Worms. In 1123 he was legate in France. Owing to his knowledge of affairs, hi-;a friendly relation to the imperial court, and his morally clean life, he was elected by a minority of the cardinals to succeed Honorius II. on Feb. 14. 1130, and took the name of Innocent II.; on the same day Cardinal Pietro Pierleoni was elected by the majority of the qualified voters (see Anacletus II.).
Being unable to maintain his position at Rome, in June, 1130, Innocent went to France, where Bernard of Clairvaux had already done everything to dispose court and clergy in his favor. Moreover, both popes, immediately after their elevation, turned to the German king, Lothair. The influence of Archbishops Norbert of Magdeburg and Conrad of Salzburg with Lothair and the higher clergy induced a synod at Würzburg in Oct., 1130, to decide for Innocent, and send an embassy to him. On Mar. 22, of the same year, Lothair prepared for him a brilliant reception at Liége, and Innocent suggested to the German king that he should march on Rome, expel Anacletus, and win the imperial crown. Lothair consented, but requested that the pope reciprocate by renouncing all the privileges won by the Church in the Concordat of Worms.
In Aug., 1132, Lothair began his expedition to Italy. As Anacletus was strong enough to restrain the king from seizing St. Peter's Church, Lothair was obliged to receive the imperial crown at the hands of his pope in the Lateran, June 4, 1133. In vain did Lothair again demand the concession of episcopal investiture, but he gained the surrender of the possessions of Matilda of Tuscany (see Papal States) in return for an annuity. On this Innocent and the curial party later based the contention that the emperor was a vassal of the Roman see. When I Ahair returned to Germany, Innocent was obliged to seek protection from the Françipani, and, in Sept., 1133, to betake himself to Pisa, where, from May 30 to June 6, 1135, he held a council which renewed the sentence of excommunication against Anacletus and his following. At the request of Innocent and the Abbot of Clairvaux, Lothair started from Würzburg, in Aug., 1136, on a second expedition. over the Alps. He led his army to southern Italy, which, the island of Sicily excepted, he wrested from King Roger, but failed to terminate the rule of Anacletus. The latter died Jan. 25, 1138.
By this event peace was restored, and a Lateran council, in 1139, excommunicated Roger of Sicily, who bad been the pope's most persistent enemy. But when Innocent undertook to lead an army in person against Roger, he fell into an ambush, and had to reckon himself fortunate in purchasing his freedom from captivity by recognizing the latter as king of Sicily. He alienated the Romans by a tedious war with Tivoli, the utter annihilation of which they demanded; when this was not attained they disclaimed obedience to the pope, and elected their own chief magistrate after the example of the Lombard cities. Even the good understanding with Louis VII. of France was changed into open enmity at the close of Innocent's reign, when the king would not accept the candidate proposed by the pope for the vacated archbishopric of Bourges. While the Romans were yet in arms, and peace with Louis as yet unachieved, Innocent died, Sept. 23, 1143.
Among the dogmatic decisions of this pope, the most noteworthy are the sentences of condemnation against Abelard and Arnold of Brescia.
Bibliography: Sources and important documents are to be found in MPL, clxxix. 27-36, 53-674; Bouquet, Re- cueil, x. 368-408· NA, iv (1879), 199-201, xiv (1889), 6113-617; MGH, Leg., section iv., Conatitutiones, i (1893), 168-170; P. Jaffé, Bibliotheca rer. Germ., v. 419 sqq., Berlin, 1869; idem, Regesta, i. 840-911, ii. 715-716; J. von Plug-Harttung, Acta pontilicum inedita, i. 138 sqq., 1265 sqq., iii. 32 sqq., Tübingen and Stuttgart, 1880-86; J. M. Watterich, Pontifcum Romanorurn vita!, ii. 174-179, Leipsic, 1862 (the Life by Cardinal Bono); Thatcher and McNeal, Documents, p. 168. Consult: R. ZSpffel, Die Papstwahlen, pp. 269 sqq., Göttingen, 1871; E. MOhl-
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Bibliography: Besides the literature under Alexander III., consult: JaV, Regesta, ii. 431; H. Reuter, Geschichts Alexanders 111., iii. 497 sqq., Leipsic, 1864; F. Gregorovius, Hist. of the City of Rome, iv. 605, London. 1896.
Innocent III. (Lotario de' Conti): Pope 1198-1216. He was born at Anagni c. 1160, son of Count
Trasimund of Segni. He received his Life Before early education in Rome, and then
Elevation studied in Paris and in Bologna. On to Papacy. his return to Rome, and after receiving minor orders, he became canon of St. Peter's. As three distinguished cardinals were among his relatives, his advance was rapid. Under Gregory VIII. he obtained the post of subdeacon, and as early as 1190, by favor of Pope Clement III., his uncle, the dignity of a cardinal diaconate of Sts. Sergius and Bacchus. Under Celestine III. he was little engaged in the curia's affairs, and em ployed this involuntary leisure in literary composition; three books, De contemlu mundi live de miseria humante conditioniR; six books, Mysteriorum evan gelictv legis ac sacramerdi Eucharistim; and the treatise De quadnipartita specie nuptiarum, which reveal his culture and his profound earnestness. On Jan. 8, 1198, the very day of the death of Celestine III., Lotario, then in his thirty-seventh year, was unanimously elected Celestine's successor. At first he declined to assume the leadership of the Church; but on Feb. 21 he was ordained priest, and on the day following received episcopal con secration, and as Innocent III. occupied the see of Peter. .Innocent's first task was to restore the prestige of the papacy in Rome and in Italy. He induced
Peter, who had been installed by Success Henry VI. prefect of Rome, to recogas Pope nize the pope's supreme authority;
in Rome and he prevailed upon the senator, and Italy. Scottus Paparoni, who, being elected by the people, had till that time been independent of St. Peter's see, to resign. Then he came forward as liberator of Italy from the for eign German rule. He conquered Spoleto, subdued Perugia, assumed a commanding position in Tu& cany, settled his rectors in the patrimonium. and soon passed in all Italy as protector of the national independence. Moreover, good fortune delivered the kingdom of Sicily into his hands. Here, after the death of Emperor Henry VI., his widow, Constance, was reigning in behalf of her minor son, Frederick. Hard pressed by the two rival and conflicting parties of Italians and Germans, she now recognized the right of the Roman see to attack Sicily as its appanage, declaring herself ready to render the oath of fealty; and even to renounce all ancient prerogatives of the Norman rulers in Church affairs. When, soon after this, she died, Nov. 27, 1198, she left a will naming Innocent regent of the empire and guardian of the minor Frederick.At the outset of Innocent's pontificate conditions for the extension of the papal sovereign power were most favorable in Germany. In this
Affairs in country, two pretenders were striving Germany. after the German royal and Roman imperial crown, Philip of Swabia, brother to Henry VI., and Otto IV. of the House of Guelph. The latter at once endeavored to draw the pope to his side by renouncing the most essen tial rights of the empire in Italy and conveying to the Roman see the exarchate of Ravenna, the Pentapolis, and the duchy of Spoleto. But, while the adherents of Otto were submissively entreating the pope to acknowledge Otto's election, the princes belonging to Philip's party exhibited a determined independence. Innocent naturally sympathized rather with the Guelph's candidacy than with that of a Hohenstaufen, although he appeared to be considering the rights of both aspirants. The pope's temporizing course was grounded in the hope that both pretenders would acquiesce in a court of arbitration composed of German print, and that Otto would emerge from the same as victor. The court of arbitration, however, did not come about. Innocent's memorial, Deliberatio papte Innocentii super facto imperii, justified his espousal of Otto's cause. In the same spirit his legate, Cardinal Bishop Guido of Praeneste, proceeded on a mission to Ger many, and in Mar., 1201, the Guelph was acknowl edged by Innocent as German king and future Roman emperor. On July 3, at a convention of the party of Otto IV., all his adversaries were ex communicated by the papal legate, but not until Guido held in his hands a docunient issued at Neuss on June 8, 1201, which embodied an express renewal of the promise that all recoveries accruing to the Roman see should be left thenceforth intact for the same. This document became the basis of the subsequent papal claims to the Papal States (q.v.). The fortune of arms turning more and more toward Otto, Philip, in 1203, sought to enter into negotiations with Innocent; but they came to nothing because he pledged himself to concede to the Curia merely what. had been taken from it by the emperors unlawfully, and refused to relin quish Central Italy, upon which the pope laid special emphasis.Howbeit, in 1204 and 1205 a powerful reaction came about in favor of the Hohenstaufen. A number of the eminent partizans of Otto IV. went over to Philip of Swabia, who was victorious on the battlefield; Philip's confederate, the king of
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Otto IV. now submitted to a new election, and on Nov. ill 1208, this made him the universally recognized king of Germany. In a state
He Crowns paper dated at Speyer Mar. 20, 1209,Otto. he conceded more than he had promFrederick ised; that is, he recognized the boundof Sicily. aries of the States of the Church as drawn by Innocent III., promised to render service in the extirpation of heresy, and disavowed all manner of influence in Church elections. Thereby he obtained, on the. pope's behalf, assurance of his coronation as emperor. He started on his expedition across the Alps in the summer of 1209, and the pope placed the imperial crown on his head Oct. 4, 1209. But Otto forgot all his promises almost before he had reached his goal. He declared war against a protdgd of Innocent, King Frederick of Sicily, and the forcible seizure of a portion of Peter's patrimonium caused the pope to threaten the emperor with the anathema. On Nov. 18, 1210, this threat was carried out, when the Curia. received intelligence of Otto's incursion within the king of Sicily's dominion. The pope now summoned against Otto the magnates of Italy and the German imperial princes, and concluded an alliance with Philip Augustus of France with a view to dethroning the emperor. The latter had won ®o many advantages in his conflict with Frederick of Sicily that the latter was actually meditating flight, when Innocent succeeded in detaching Cremona,
Mantua, Verona, Ferrara, and other cities of, northern Italy from the emperor; while in Germany, with the cooperation of France, he brought it about that the imperial princes assembled at Nuremberg in Sept., 1211, resolved to offer the German royal crown to Frederick of Sicily, as the son of Henry VI. Innocent did not forbid the king of Sicily to acquiesce in this proposal of the German princes after the king had devised a state paper to the import that in the future he intended to constitute his Sicilian kingdom a papal appanage. By a convention of princes at Frankfort, Dec. 5, 1212, Frederick was elected king of the Romans in all due form, and soon afterward he was crowned at Mainz. When Frederick kept gaining larger and larger support in central and south Germany, and when even members of the house of Guelph were turning to the Hohenstaufen, the pope deemed the time at hand for asking and receiving of Frederick some toll of gratitude. On June 12, 1213, the elected emperor, in a state paper drawn up at Eger (Mirbt, Quedlen, pp. 131-133), guaranteed anew to "his protector and benefactor, Innocent" all the domains rights, and concessions which Otto IV., on Mar. 22, 1209, had granted the see of Peter. The battle of Bouvines, June 27, 1214, in which Otto IV. and his ally, the king of England, were utterly defeated by Philip Augustus of France, decided the strife for the German throne in favor of Frederick II. The illustrious council, which convened at Rome in 1215 again passed sentence of excommunication upon Otto, whereupon Innocent proclaimed, before the council, Frederick II. as the elected emperor. The pope was spared by death from the bitter experience which was to be the lot of his successors, that, from the Church standpoint, the elevation of Frederick II. was a still greater blunder than the favor shown previously to Otto IV.
Innocent could boast of still greater success in relation to Philip Augustus of France. The latter, by the act of an assembly of French Innocent's bishops at Compi~gne, had separated
Relations from his lawful wife, Ingeborg, a withFrance Danish princess, ostensibly because of and Spain. too close a degree of relationship between them; subsequently he had married Agnes, the daughter of Duke Berthaud III. of Meran. Pope Celestine III. had already pro tested, in the name of the Church, against this dissolution of marriage, as also against the later wedlock. Innocent took up the cause of the repu diated wife at the very beginning of his papacy. Philip Augustus turning a deaf ear to all remon strances, the pope's cardinal legate, in a council at Dijon, declared the interdict upon all France, and when the clergy generally suspended public worship, the people revolted and the nobility took to arms. Philip Augustus was at last constrained, on Sept. 7, 1200, to promise the papal legate, Cardinal Bishop Octaviano of Ostia, and Cardinal Giovanni Colonna, to take Ingeborg back a, queen and consort. He then sought in vain, at a synod at Soissons, to induce the papal legates to dissolve his marriage, and neat attempted to compel his wife to a " voluntary;' renunciation. In 1213 Innocent had the satisfaction of seeing the queen|
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When King Sancho of Portugal declined to pay the tribute promised by his father to the see of Peter, Innocent demanded the same with energy. Moreover, he exacted obedience to the papal regulations from Duke Ladislaus of Poland, who was robbing the Church and the bishops of their estates and rights. How strenuously Innocent insisted that the pope alone had the right to excommunicate kings or to release them from the ban appeared when Archbishop Eric of Trondhjem absolved Hakon, king of Sweden, after he had restored to the Church what his father had taken from it by violence, without consulting the pope. Innocent wrote to the archbishop that he had imitated himself as an ape might a man, and only absolution by the representative of Peter had validity. The renown of this powerful pope impelled Prince John of the Bulgarians to hope that by submitting to the see of Rome he might secure his sovereignty against foes at home, as well as against the claims of the Byzantine emperors. On Nov. 8, 1204, he received from the pope's legate the royal crown, the scepter, and a banner which Innocent had sent him, adorned with the cross of Christ and Peter's keys.
The fearlessness of Innocent, his firm perseverance in a path once taken, and his proud disdain of all temporal supremacy, born of the conviction that he was not simply the representative of St. Peter, but also the vicar of Christ and of God, was most brilliantly verified in his behavior toward the English king John. The monks of Canterbury cathedral, upon the death of their archbishop, Hubert, elected their superior, Reginald, as successor to the deceased prelate; when he proved unworthy of such confidence, they elected, at the king's wish, Bishop John of Norwich. Innocent did not confirm the latter's election, but induced certain members of the Canterbury convention, who were sojourning in Rome, to elevate the cardinal priest, Stephen Langton (q.v.), to the archiepiscopal throne, and a vehement conflict between State and Church was then inevitable, for the king was not disposed to yield in favor of a man imposed forcibly upon him by the pope. The papal threat of the interdict taking practical effect on Mar. 24, 1208, the king retaliated by giving orders to banish all clerics from England, and to confiscate their estates. Hereupon the pope excommunicated him. All devices to keep news of the pope's action from England were fruitless; the sentence became known, and the king felt its operation in a revolt of the nobility. When Innocent furthermore released all subjects from the fealty and obedience they had sworn to the king, and threatened -the penalty of excommunication against every one who had any dealings with him, the uprising grew stronger and stronger. At this pass the pope had recourse to the extreme step of pronouncing the crown forfeit, also summoning Philip Augustus to drive the unworthy fellow from the throne, and himself to take permanent possession thereof; whoever should take part in the war against John was to count as a crusader, and become participant in all the indulgences of a crusader. John now yielded and resolved to ac. acquiesce in the proposals once more set before him by the Curia through the legates Pandolfo and Durando. At Dover, on May 13, 1213, the king concluded an agreement with the Roman plenipotentiaries, to the effect that he would recognize Stephen as archbishop of Canterbury; restore all Church properties that he had appropriated to himself; authorize the return of the emigrated and expelled clergy and monks; accord liberty to the captive; and more to the same effect. But this Dover scene had even a still graver sequel. Really to secure himself against the impending invasion by the French pretender to the crown, though nominally in expiation of his sins, on May 18, 1213, John surrendered his kingdoms of England and Ireland to God and the pope, but then recovered them qs papal feudatory, on condition of discharging an annual feudal rentage to the see of Peter--700 marks for England, and 300 marks for Ireland. He was not absolved from the ban, however, until he had humbled himself before Archbishop Stephen. Beside all this, the land still remained under the interdict until July 2, 1214; that is to say, till the king had made restitution to the clergy, by a heavy sum of money, for the damages he had inflicted upon them during his grievous persecutions. Peace was now restored; but the king's oppressed and overtaxed barons could not endure the humiliation put upon them by John when he conveyed the realm to the pope. Their grievances not being removed, they had recourse to arms, in 1215, when they took possession of London and forced from the king the Magna Charta. No sooner had its contents become known to Innocent than he roundly denounced the compact, inasmuch as it encroached too seriously upon the royal prerogatives, and indirectly upon the see of Peter, now that the pope was John's liege lord. He declared the charter void and worthless, outrageous, without binding force. But neither this pronouncement nor repeated excommunications of all the king's adversaries had the least result. By nothing else did the papacy so sorely injure itself in England as by this opposition to the Magna Charta.
As vicar of Christ, Innocent appealed to kings and peoples for a crusade to the Holy Land. The preaching of Fulco of Neuilly (q.v.) won a portion of the French nobility, under the leadership
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of Margrave Bonifaee of Montferrat, and the Cistercian Martin, abbot at Colmar, sued for the cause
in southern Germany. However, the The crusading army, camping at Venice,
Fourth was employed by the Doge Dandalo to Crusade. recover the city of Zara, which hadbeen wrested from the Venetians by the king of Hungary. Then, and likewise contrary to the will of the pope, the crusading knights offered their help to the Byzantine pretender, Alexios Angelos, the son of the deposed and blinded emperor Isaac Angelos, to recover his ancestral inheritance, withheld from him by the usurper Alexios III., and conquer Constantinople. After Constantinople had been duly won by the crusaders and Isaac Angelos and his son had resumed possession of the throne, the situation between Greeks and Latins became so intolerable that during an insurrection of the former, Alexios Angelos, who was supposed to be all too partial to the Latins, was, thrown into prison, and ultimately strangled. There now remained no other course open to the Latin knights than to possess themselves of the city by force of arms, and organize a Latin empire there; whereupon, May 16, 1204, Count Baldwin of Flanders was crowned as emperor. Through the founding of the Latin empire, a much desired prospect toward eventual union of the Greek and the Latin Churches was disclosed to the see of Peter, and Innocent, who at first had bitterly censured the delay which the crusade had suffered by the expedition to Constantinople, now gave written expression to his joy over the great success of arms, and voiced the hope that there might soon be one shepherd and one fold, and the appointment of a Roman patriarch of Constantinople soon followed. Innocent supplied a new goal for the ardor of crusading by the terms of a bull dated Oct. 12, 1204, wherein he guaranteed the same gracious dispensations for an expedition to Livonia as for participation in a march to Jerusalem; he even authorized all those who had declared themselves ready for the latter to exchange this obligation in favor of the march to Livonia. By the continual importation of new troops Bishop Albert of Riga (q.v.) succeeded in baptizing the Livonians in 1206; and the Letts in 1208.
Moreover, Innocent III. was the first to impart to the crusades the direction of heretical wars. As early as 1207 he summoned the French king to extirpate the heretics in the district about Toulouse, and allowed every one who should unite in the crusade against these the same indulgence as to the crusaders proper. The cruelties against the Albigenses do not fall so much to the charge of In-
nocent in person as to that of the Innocent "system" which, under him and
and the through him, attained its full developFourth ment and execution. The regulations Lateran devised by the pope against heretics Council. were approved at the Fourth Lateran
Council in 1215, and were codified as canon Is-, All who hold stations of power shall promise to endure no heretics in their jurisdiction. Should a prince fail to heed the injunction to cleanse his land-of heretics, he is subject to the ban; in the
Innocent IIIevent of protracted resistance, he is to be deposed from his sovereignty. Whoever takes part in such a crusade is to be guaranteed the benefits accorded to the proper crusaders. Exceedingly severe, again, was the policy inaugurated and ordained by this council against the Jews. Not merely were the authorities forbidden to intrust the Jew with a public office, but the Jews were commanded to dress differently from the Christians to the end that they might at once be recognizable as Jews; they were forbidden to go abroad in the streets during Holy Week, lest in this time of mourning the Christians take offense at their gay apparel. Among the other decisions passed by this council may be noted as important the rejection of the erroneous doctrine of Amalric of Bena (q.v.); the condemnation of the tract aimed against Peter Lombard by Joachim of Fiore, De unitate seu ementia trdnita&; and the prohibition to found new orders. The final deliverance by the council was its assent to the papal bull inviting peoples and princes to a new crusade into the Holy Land for 1207. This ecumenical council, held at the close of Innocent's pontificate, shows that powerful pope as the unlimited ruler over the world and the Church. Emperors, kings, and princes had sent him their plenipotentiaries; 1,500 archbishops, bishops, abbots, etc., took part in the council's proceedings; or, more properly expressed, they attended the official reading of the decrees of Innocent III., since nothing was attempted in the way of actual deliberations.
The absolutism of Innocent III. in the internal administration of the Church exceeds that of all his predecessors. No one else encroached The Admin- to a like degree upon the prerogatives istration of of the bishops and metropolitans, or so the Church. highly arrogated to himself the right of appointment vested in the local church dignitaries. He was the first to claim for the popes a right to bestow benefices; and he issued innumerable provisional orders to the end of securing, at the expense of the locally resident clergy and with the abated prestige of the native bishops, a productive living to the papal servants, the Roman ecclesiastics, even to his blood relatives and confidants. The centralization of ecclesiastical power in the hands of the pope was also furthered by Innocent by his reserving to himself the right of episcopal appointment in case the qualified electors overstepped their canonical prerogatives. He likewise reserved to the Roman see the right of removing bishops, declaring that it devolved on the pope alone, as vicar of Christ, to dissolve the marriage between a bishop and his congregation.
The unbounded prestige enjoyed by Innocent III. in questions of canon law rested alike upon his variously demonstrated legal acumen
Decretals and upon his thorough and minute and knowledge of the material. The de-
3ermons. cretals of the first three years of his pontificate were collected by Rainer of Pomposi, and subsequently Bernardue Com postellanus undertook to compile in a single colleo tion (Compilatio Romans) the ordinances deriving from the first nine years of his Papacy. Again, the|
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pope himself, by the hand of his notary, Petrus Callivacinus, ordered a collection of all the decretals promulgated down to the twelfth year of his rule, and addressed this so-called Compilatio tertia (1210) to the University of Bologna. Shortly after Innocent's death the briefs and bulls of the last six years of his pontificate were also published as the Comptaatio quarda. Occupied as he was with ecclesiastical disputations and law matters, Innocent found leisure to pursue his literary activity. He expounded the seven penitential Psalms. To neutralize the distracting influence of legal affairs, he preached frequently, not only in Rome, but also on his journeys. His sermons were collected in part by himself, and a goodly array of them has been preserved. They are pompous and florid, but witness the depth of his religious feeling and a true humility before God. He died at Perugia July 16, 1216. His convictions and acts are not to be ascribed to a proud and selfish heart or to the unscrupulousness of a politic, self-seeking priest. When he threatened, banned, and absolved, he sought not his own honor, but the honor of him whose representative on earth he believed himself to be. If there is to be a pope at all, he was the
model and ideal. CARL MIRBT.BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are to be found in the Letters, Writings and Sermons of Innocent, printed in MPL. cesiv.-ecavii.; L. Delisle, Ldbes in6ditea d'Innocent III ., in Bibliothpque de 1'Ecole des chartres, acv (1873), 397-419; idem, Les Repiatres d'Innocent 11 (., ib. alvi (1885), 84-94; E. Berger, Lea Regittrea d'Innocent III., Paris, 1884, Documents in the original or in trans]. are in Reich, Documents, pp. 178-187; Thatcher and McNeal, Documents, pp. 208-226; Henderson, Documents, pp. 337-344, 430-432; Gee and Hardy, Documents, pp. 73-78; of. Robinson, European History, i. 338 eqq. Innocent's bull of Mar. 3, 1216, is in Eng. tranal., Warrington, 1886, Consult: F. Hurter, Oeschichte Innocent Ill ., 4 vols., Hamburg, 1836-42 (the best life); C. H. C. Pirie-Gordon, Innocent the Great, Ass Life and Times, London and New York, 1907; L. Delisle, Mlmaire our lea actea d'Innocent III.. Paris, 1857; F. von Raumer, Oeachichte der Hohen ataufen, vole. ii.-iii., Ixipsie, 1871; W. Molitor, Die Dekretak " Per venerabilem " von Innocens III., Munich, 1876; F. Deutsch, Papal Innocens Ill . and rein Einflusa auf die Kirche, Breslau, 1877; C. BShler, Due Verhaltnis Kaiser Friedrichs I l. su den Papaten seiner Zeit, Breslau, 1888; E. Winkelmann, Philipp von Schwaben and Otto IV. von Braunschweig, i , 93 eqq, and vol. ii.: Leipaic, 1873-78, idem, Kaiser Friedrich II., ib. 1889; F. Roequain, La Papautt! au moyen 4gs, Paris, 1881, R. Schwemer, Innocent III . and die deutsche Kirche . . . 11981808, Strasburg, 1882; J. N. Brischar, Papal Innocent Ill. and seine Zeit, Freiburg, 1883; J. Lange., Oeschichte der rthnisohen Kirche, iv. 600-713, Bonn, 1893; F. Gregorovius, Hist. of the City q/ Rome, v. 5-113, 609, 631 London, 1897; R. RBhricht, Geechichte den KBnipreichs Jerusalem (1100-1891), pp. 682 eqq.,Innsbruck,1898; C. Mirbt, Quelten zur Gesrhicdts des Papattuma, pp. 125-136. Tubingen. 1901; J. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, pp. 206-207 et passim, New York, 1904; A. Luehaire, Innocent 111., 6 vols., Paris, 1902-07; W. S. McKechnie, Magna Charta, New York, 1905; Bower, Popes, ii. 535-549; Schaff, Christian Church, v. 1. chap. v.; Milman, Latin Chris tianity, vole iv.-v.; Neander, Christian Church, iv., 173178 et passim; Ceillier, Auteurs sacrla, uv. 946-1018 et passim; Hefele, Concilienpeschidte, v. 771 aqq.: Bar. Rack, Dogma, vol. vi. passim; Hauck, KD, iv. 683 eqq., and much of the literature given under Caoesnsa will be found pertinent, especially E. Pears, The Fall of Constantinopls, New York, 1886.
Innocent IV. (Sinibaldo de' Fieschi): Pope 12431254. Descended from the counts of Lavagna, and born at Genoa, he was brought up at Parma under
the care of his uncle Obizzo, bishop of that see,was ordained there, and became a canon of the
cathedral. He studied law at Bologna,
Earlier laying the foundation of the reputa
Life and tion which he afterward won as pope
Writings. in that branch of learning. His first
entrance into political life was ap
parently in 1218-19, when, together with Cardinal
Ugolino, the later Pope Gregory IX., he made peace
between Genoa and Pisa. In 1223 he received a
benefit at Parma from Honorius III. and in 1226
an official position at Rome, in 1227 was made a
cardinal, and from 1235 to 1240 he was papal gover
nor of the March of Ancona. On June 25, 1243,
after an interregnum of a year and a half, he was
elected pope at Anagni, and consecrated on June 28.
Amidst all the political storms of his pontificate he
found time for literary work. His small treatise,
De exceptionibus, was probably written earlier;
but he wrote at Lyons, immediately after the coun
cil (1245), the Apparatus ire quinque lZros decre
talium, marked by remarkable precision, perfect
command of his materials, and strong; practical in
sight. His Apologeticus has unfortunately been lost;
it was a defense of the rights of the papacy against
the empire. In other ways Innocent promoted
learning; he induced Alexander of Hales to write
his Summa ummiversm theologise, and encouraged the
universities, especially the Sorbonne, besides erecting
new schools of jurisprudence at Rome and Piacenza.
Innocent's relations with Frederick II. and Con
rad IV. need more detailed description. Frederick
wrote to the prints three slays after
Innocent his election, expressing the fullest con
and Fred- fidence in the result of the election,
erick II. and a month later sent the leading
The First magnates of the empire to Anagni to
Council open negotiations for peat. But in
of Lyons. spite of Innocent's professed .willing
ness to submit the whole controversy
with the emperor to a general council and to remove
the excommunication (see GREGORY IX.) in case
it was found unjust, Frederick could not agree to
unconditional restitution of all Church property and
the restoration to favor of the Lombards, whom he
regarded,as rebels. Even while the negotiations
were in progress, Innocent made Cardinal Capotio,
Frederick's bitterest opponent, bishop of Viterbo,
and through him vron over this town to the papal
side, supporting it against Frederick's attacks with
large sums of money. Through the mediation of
Count Raymond of Toulouse and Baldwin, emperor
of Constantinople, terms of peat were arranged on
Mar. 31, 1244, by which Frederick, submitting to the
pope's demands, was to be relieved of his excommu.
nication. But before the end of April the strife had
broken out again on the Lombard question. Fred
erick sought a personal interview, but Innocent
withdrew secretly to Civita Vecchia, where a
Genoese fleet was waiting for him, and arrived in
Genoa July 7. He was looking for a safe place in
which to assemble a council and pronounce judg
ment on the emperor. Such a place was Lyons,
no longer under the empire, and not yet a part of
the French kingdom, on the boundary line between
the Latin and Teutonic rats. Hither Innocent
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went on Oct. 5, arriving on Dec. 2, and on Dec. 27
issued the, summons for a council to meet on June 24
of the neat year. Only 150 bishops attended, mostly
French and Spanish, with scarcely any Germans.
The pope went swiftly to work, with two compre
hensive briefs of bitter accusation against Frederick.
Thaddeus of Sueesa, the imperial representative,
made a skilful defense of his master, denied all
legality to the assembly, and appealed to a future
pope and a really ecumenical council; the repre
sentatives of the kings of France and England urged
delay; but Innocent condemned Frederick on the
counts of perjury, sacrilege, heresy, and felony
the last-for his oppression of the kingdom of Sicily
and refusal to pay the feudal dues from it. The
German princes were exhorted to elect a new em
peror, while Innocent himself would make pro
vision for Sicily, after consultation with the cardinals.
The emperor was not slow in making answer. He
addressed an appeal to all Christian princes to
remedy the condition of the secularized
Progress Church by bringing back the clergy,
of the especially the higher prelates, to the
Contest state of apostolic poverty and imita
between tion of the humility of their Lord.
Pope and The poge also appealed to the sover
Emperor. eigns, and went beyond personal ac
cusations to develop still further the
theories of the subordination of the secular power
to the spiritual, as they had been held from Gregory
VII. to Innocent III. On both sides the excitement
reached its height. The Dominicans and Francis
cans went out as zealous preachers of a crusade
against a heretical emperor, for which the same
privileges would be granted as for the perilous jour
ney to the Holy Land. Twice (Nov., 1245, and May,
1246) Innocent, stubbornly rejected the mediation
of Louis IX. of France, and in Sicily supported an
aristocratic conspiracy which threatened Freder
ick's life, and in Germany the efforts of the three
Rhenish archbishops to bring about a new election.
On Apr. 21, 1246, he summoned the electors to
proceed to the choice of Henry Raspe, landgrave
of Thuringia, who, on May 22, was elected by the
three archbishops, four bishops, and a number of
counts and knights. The majority of these, with
the imperial cities, adhered to the Hohenstaufen,
and on Feb. 17, 1247, the " priests' king " came to
an ignominious end. Innocent sought in various
quarters for a successor, but without suocess until,
in Oct., Count William of Holland, a youth of
twenty, was elected by secular and ecclesiastical
magnates of the Rhine provinces, though it was not
until Nov. 1, 1248, that he was able to be crowned
at Aachen, and his power was then scarcely felt
beyond Mainz. Frederick seemed at first to have
the upper hand in, Italy. He occupied a large part
of the States of te Church, the duchy of Spoleto,
and the March of Ancona, while King Enzio and the
mighty Eizelino da Romano upheld his cause in
Lombardy; and at the very moment of his deposi
tion he was joined by Venice and the count of Savoy,
whose adhesion gave him command of the Alpine
passes, ao that he planned to march on Lyons and
force the pope to make terms. The situation was
soon altered, however, by the success of Innocent's
partizan. in gaining possession of Parma, a place of great strategic importance (June 16, 1247). This town became the central point of the struggle; and Frederick's fortunes began to decline when his besieging force was defeated with great loss by the garrison (Feb. 18, 1248). Innocent now redoubled his efforts to gain the command of Sicily, but with out notable success. Cardinal Octavian succeeded better in Romagna; and Frederick suffered a severe blow in the capture of his favorite son, Enzio, by the Bolognese on May 26, 1249. Undaunted to the last, he was making new plans for strengthening his party in central and northern Italy and setting fresh hordes of Saraoens in motion toward the north, when death put an end to his projects (Dec. 13, 1250). Innocent now set to work to crash his old enemy's heir, Conrad. After laying out a plan of campaign in consultation with William of Hol Conrad IV. land, who then returned to take com mand in Germany, the pope finally left Lyons.(Apr. 19, 1251) and came down through Lombardy to Perugia. Naples and Capua came over to his side, but the eighteen-year-old Manfred succeeded in checking the movement in the south, and at the beginning of 1252 Conrad won back the cities which had deserted him. Innocent sought new allies; but Richard of Cornwall, to whom he offered the crown of Sicily, declined it, and the French cardinals opposed the project. Charles of Anjou was considered, but without definite result. Finally Henry III. of England accepted the crown for his minor son, Edmund. Even Rome was threatened by Conrad's victory at Naples; yet Innocent undauntedly refused for the second time to receive his envoys and began proceedings against him on charges of oppressing the clergy, favoring heretics, and murder. Death again came to the pope's aid; in the winter of 1253-54 Conrad lost his father-in-law Otto of Bavaria, his nephew Frederick, and his half-brother Henry of Sicily, and on May 20, 1254, Conrad himself died, com mending his two-year-old son Conradin to the pope's guardianship. Innocent now felt sure of the possession of Sicily; and Manfred, weakened by treachery among his own supporters, saw nothing for it but nominal submission. On Oct. 20, 1254, Innocent took formal possession of Sicily and Calabria. But Manfred suddenly escaped to Luceria and put himself at the head of his faithful Saracens. The pope's life-work, apparently so near comple tion, was once more threatened. On Dec. 2 Manfred captured Foggia; tfie papal legate and his army fled without striking a blow. The news of this disaster found Innocent stretched on a sick-bed in Naples and embittered his last hours. He died Dec. 7. Innocent's relations with France were governed by his desire to preserve a counterpoise against the emperor, and by the eager wish of Innocent's Louis IX. to deliver the Holy Land. Relations This latter explains Louis' efforts to with make peace in 1244 and the neutral France and attitude he assumed in the subsequent England. conflict. But the Curia forced the French nobles into a hostile position by interference in national affairs and by cupidity, so that Frederick found some support among them|
504 |
after his deposition by the council, and his ideas are plainly visible in the league formed by them in November, 1246. Innocent's blind hatred of Frederick brought about the failure of the crusade undertaken by Louis in 1248, and he was openly named as the cause of it by the king's brothers, the counts of Anjou and Poitou, who threatened to expel him from Lyons if he did not make terms with Frederick. The relations between France and the Curia became, however, more friendly when Charles of Anjou was spoken of for the Sicilian crown. England was also considered by Innocent as an abundant source of supplies for his war with the empire, and his legate, Martin, appeared therewith unprecedentedly ample powers, to collect ten thousand marks. When Frederick counseled the
England. king to free himself from the illegal tribute the legate was told to go, and the king established the fact that the Curia had been taking annually sixty thousand' marks out of England-more than his own revenue. Supported by the Synod of Winchester (Dec., 1245), Henry refused payment; but under the threat of an inter dict the prelates weakened.Innocent's conduct in regard to the affairs of Portugal resembles more the high moral tone taken by the third of his name. King Sancho 11. refusing to abandon his dissolute life, the pope absolved his subjects from their allegiance, and transferred the crown to his brother, Alfonso.
(HANS SCHULZ.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: The sources are exceedingly scattered;perhaps the best index to them is found in Hauck-Herzog: RE, ix. 122-124. Among the sources may be named: Die Regesten Innocenz IV., published by the Literarischer Verein, Stuttgart, 1843 sqq.; S. Berger, Lea Repistree d'Innocent IV., Paris, 1881 sqq.; w. H. Bliss, Calendar of Entries in the Papal Registers, i. 198-308, London, 18°3; Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, p. 508; and the early Vitie, one by Nioolao de Curbio, in Muratori, Scriptures, ii. 1, pp. 589 eqq., cf. vi. 504-521, viii. 494-495, 680-681, 786-787, 964-965, etc. For later discussions consult: A. von Reumont, Geschichte tier Stadt Rom, u. 530-531, Berlin, 1868; F. Schirrmacher, Die letzten Hohenstaufen, G6ttingen, 1871; B. Jungmann, Dissertationes eeleeto, v. 418 sqq., Regensburg, 1885; C. KShler, Dos Verhdltnia Kaiser Friedrich 11. zu den Pdpaten seiner Zeit, Breslau, 1888; P. Fournier, Le Royaume d'Arka de Vienne, Paris, 1891; C. Rodenberg, Innocenz IV. and das KBnigreich Sicilien, Halle, 1892; E. Berger, S. Louie et Innocent IV., Paris, 1893; F. Gregorovius, Hist. of the City of Rome, v. 229-307, 612, London, 1897; St. Pathos, Vie de S. Louis, ed. F. Delaborde, Paris, 1899; H. Weber, Der Kampf zwschen Innoeenz IV. and Kaiser Friedrich II., Berlin, 1900; W. R. W. Stephens, The English Church (1068-1272'), pp. 238-240, London, 1901; J. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, pp. 209-210, 268, 424, New York, 1904; A. Folz, Kaiser Friedrich 11. and Papst Innocenz IV.. Strasburg, 1905; Neander, Christian Church, iv. 49-51. et passim; Moeller, Christian Church, ii. 279, 283 sqq., 302; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, v. 1089, 1105-1156, vi. 1-10; ADB, vii. 445, xvi. 562; KL, vi. 736-737; Bower, Popes, ii. 560567; Milman, Latin Christianity, v. 459 sqq.
Innocent V. (Pierre de Champagni, or de Tarentaise): Pope 1276. He was born about 1225 of a noble family in the ecclesiastical province of Tarentaise, on the upper Is6re, entered the Dominican order at sixteen, and won the fame of a scholar. He taught theology in the University of Paris, and assisted Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas to draw up the rule of studies for their order. In 1262 lie became provincial for France, but when Thomas
THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 504Aquinas was called to Italy, resumed his lectures at the Sorbonne (1267-69). By Gregory X. he was made grand penitentiary, in 1272 archbishop of Lyons, and in 1273 cardinal-bishop of Ostia and Velletri, though he retained the see of Lyons until Apr., 1274. He was a prominent figure at the Council of Lyons in the latter year. In Apr., 1275, he left Lyons with the pope to take part in the negotiations with Rudolf of Hapsburg at Lausanne. On the death of Gregory X., he was elected pope at Arezzo, Jan. 21, 1276, and continued his predecessor's policy, directed toward the unattainable ideal of a general peace in Europe, as a prerequisite for a great crusade which was to draw upon the entire forces of Christendom. He attempted to mediate between the quarrelsome Italian states and between Charles of Anjou and Rudolf of Hapsburg. He approved Charles' appointment as a senator of Rome and imperial vicar for Tuscany, and advised Rudolf to postpone the journey to Rome, which Gregory had urged, until he should have completely regularized his relations with both the Curia and Charles, and especially recalled his officials from Romagna. In order to enlist the forces of the Eastern Empire in his crusade, he continued Gregory's attempts at bringing about a union with the Greek Church. Charles of Anjou and Venice had designs on Constantinople which were by no means in harmony with Innocent's pacific policy, and the Emperor Michael Paheologus sought a close alliance with him. He required that Michael should swear to the terms of union agreed upon at Lyons; but he died in Rome before his envoys had left Italy, June 22, 1276. His writings embraced theology, philosophy, and canon law. The most famous of them were his commentaries on the Pauline epistles, often published (editio princeps Cologne, 1478) under the name of Nicolaus Gorranus, and on the " Sentences " of Peter Lombard. A complete edition of hiss works was published at Toulouse from a manuscript in the Dominican house thepre in 1651. (HANS SCHULZ.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY: Liber pontifkalie, ed. L. Ducheene, ii. 457, Paris, 1892; A. Potthast, Regesta ponliftcum Romanorum, ii. 1703-1708, Berlin, 1875. Other minute and scattered sources are indicated in Hauck-Herzog, RE, ix. 130-131. Consult: F. J. Bethaz, Le Pape Innocent V., eat-il PraWaia ou Italien., Paris, 1883; idem, Pierre ties Coura de la Salle, Aoste, . . Innocent V., ib. 1892; J. E. Borrel, Patrie du Page, Innocent V_ 3 parts, ib. 1890-94; L. Carbani, Diasertatio hiatorica de Innocentio V., Rome, 1894; Vie du bienluureux Innocent V., Rome, 1896 (contains many original documents); Ppre Bourgeois, Le bienheureux Innocent V., Paris, 1899; Bower, Popes, iii. 23-24; Milman, Latin Christianity, vi. 134; KL, vi. 743-744.
Innocent VI. (Ptienne Aubert): Pope 1352-62. He was born in the village of Mons, in the diocese of Limoges, and began his public career as professor of civil law at Toulouse, where he rose to hold the highest judicial functions. Later he took holy orders, and became bishop of Noyon, which see he exchanged in 1340 for that of Clermont. In 1342 Clement VI. made him a cardinal-priest,- and ten years later cardinal-bishop of Ostia and grand penitentiary. After Clement's death the cardinals entered into an agreement, the observance of which was to be binding upon the new pope when chosen. Its most important provisions were that the pope
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was not to alienate or, grant feudal investiture of any Church lands without the consent of two-thirds of the cardinals; he was not to depose, imprison, suspend, or excommunicate any cardinal without the approval of the college; he was to divide the revenues of the Church equally between himself and the college, which had previously received only half of such reN enues as came under the technical designation of census. This agreement all the cardinals subscribed, some of them with the reservation " in so far as it was lawful." Among these was the bishop of Ostia, who was selected pope on Dec. 18, 1352, and not long after his coronation he declared the instrument null and void, as limiting the divinely granted powers of the papacy.
Deeply versed in canon law, and severe in morals, Innocent at once set about correcting abuses, revoking many of his predecessor's grants of benefices, reservations, commendams, and expectations, declaring himself against pluralities, and enforcing the obligation of residence on the higher clergy. He diminished the pomp of the papal court, and assigned a fixed and sufficient income to the judges of the Rota in order to ensure a better administration of justice. Another of his principal aims was the recovery of the domains of the Church. In 1353 he sent Cardinal Albornoz to Italy, who soon brought Rome into subjection, and carried on the reduction of the Papal States with great skill, until his return to Avignon in 1357; two years later the incompetence of his successor, Abbot Adroin of Cluny, caused him to be sent back, and in the next few years he had a hard struggle with Bernabd Visconti of Milan for the possession of Bologna.
Innocent's relations with the empire were peaceable. He opposed no hindrances to the visit of Charles IV. to Rome, where he was crowned on Apr. 5, 1355, by the bishop of Ostia, after taking an oath never to interfere in Rome or any other papal domains, to leave the city on the day of his coronation, and not to return without the pope's leave. In his succeeding years, Charles adopted a more independent position, but open conflict was avoided. In 1359, in order especially to provide funds for the Italian campaigns of Albornoz, the Curia imposed a tax of a tenth for Germany. When the papal legate attempted to enforce this demand at the diet in Mainz, Charles insisted that the pope reform the German clergy before he exact money from the country; and measures to this end were soon after adopted by Innocent. He refused, indeed, to revoke the bulls which Clement V. had issued against Charles's grandfather, Henry VII., but he gratified Charles by appointing his trusted counselor, Dietrich of Minden, to the archbishopric of Magdeburg and thus assisting the ambitions of the house of Luxemburg in the direction of the acquisition of Brandenburg.
His relations with France were friendly, and he sought to mediate between that country and England, especially just before the battle of Maupertuis in 1356, when King John, confident of success, rejected his intervention, and was carried captive to London by the Black Prince. The peace of Bretigny in 1360 was, however, due to his efforts. He put forth all his powers with unsatisfactory
innocent IV-VII results against Peter I., the Cruel, of Castile, to force him to put away his mistress and take back his lawful wife, Blanche of Bourbon. Equally un successful were Innocent's efforts to bring about peace between this king and Peter IV. of Aragon. In his last years he was occupied with plans for a crusade and for a reunion with the Eastern Church, but died in the midst of his negotiations with the Emperor John Paheologus, Sept. 12, 1362. (MAX NAUMANN.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: For a list of sources consult Hauck-Herzog, RE, ix. 132-133. The most important sources are: Liber ponti,/tcalia, ed. L. Duchesne, ii. 492, Paris, 1892; Bul larium Romanorum, iv. 502-519, Turin, 1859; A. Theiner, Codex diplomaticus, ii. 241-293, Rome, 1862; It. Martpne and U. Durand, Thesaurus novus anecdotorum, ii. 843-1072, Paris, 1717; L. Wadding, Annales Minorum, viii. 431-486, Rome, 1773; Lettres du pope Innocent VI . et Blanche de Bourbon, Paris, 1901. Early Vito; are collected in E. Baluze, Vita paparum Avenionensium, i. 321-362, 918-974; 1433-1435, Paris, 1693. Consult: J. B. Christophe, Hist, de la Papaute pendant Is -iv. sikle, ii. 222-352, Paris, 1853; D. Cerri, Innocenzo papa. VI_ Turin, 1873; E. Werunsky, Italienische Politik Papst Innocenz V1. and KPnip Karl IV., t Vienna, 1878; idem, (3eschichte Kaiser Karls IV., vols. ii.-iii., Innsbruck, 1886-92; G. Daumet, in Melanges d'areheologie et d'histoire, xvu (1897), 153 eqq.; idem, Innocent IV . et Blanche de Bourbon: Wires du pope, Paris, 1899; J. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, p. 299, New York, 1904; Pastor, Popes, i. 93-95; Creighton, Papacy, i. 54 55; KL, vi. 744; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vi. 697-708, Bower, Popes, iii. 104-109; Milman, Latin Christianity, vii. 200-207. Innocent VII. (Cosimo de' Migliorati): Pope 1404-06. He was born at Sulmona in the Abruzzi, and came to the Curia under Urban V1., who made him archbishop of Ravenna and bishop of Bologna, and employed him on delicate missions. Bonifaee IX. appointed him cardinal in 1389. His upright and ascetic life, his deep knowledge of canon law, and his general ability for affairs led to his choice as Boniface's successor on Oct. 17, 1404. In his election compact he had subscribed the obligation to do all in his power to heal the great Western schism (see ScHisM),. and in furtherance of this he called a general council to meet in Rome in 1405. That the gathering did not take place was not the pope's fault; the Romans rose in rebellion and forced Innocent and his cardinals to flee to Viterbo. Ladislaus, king of Naples, who encouraged the anti papal party in Rome, was put under the ban. When the University of Paris and the French king proposed that both Innocent and his rival at Avignon, Benedict XIII., should abdicate, the former resisted and declined to send envoys for preliminary conferences with delegates of Benedict. Meantime he had succeeded in returning to Rome in 1406; but in the same year he died (Nov. 6), without having accomplished anything toward the restoration of unity. K. BENRATH. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Early Vike are in Muratori, Scriptores, iii. 2, pp. 832-835, and further pertinent matter is found in the same work, ii. 2, pp. 1116-1117, xix. 909-910, xxiv. 968-969. Consult: J. B. Christophe, Hist. de la papauth pendant le xiv. sacle vol. iii., Paris, 1853; A. von Reumont, Geechichte der Stadt Rom, ii. 1110 sqq., Berlin, 1867; L. Gayet, Le Grand Schisms d'occident 2 vols., Parie, 1889-90; C. Valois, La France et Is grand schisms d'occident, 4 vole., ib. 1896-1902 Creighton, Papacy, 1. 184-197; Pastor, Popes, i. 165-166; Hefele, Coneiliengeschichte, vi. 748 sqq.; Bower, Popes, iii. 153-156; Milman, Latin Christianity, vii. 29-296; KL, vi. 747-748.|
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Innocent VIII. (Giovanni Battista Cibo): Pope 1484-92. He was born in Genoa in 1432, and was brought up at the court of Naples: He studied in Padua and Rome, where he won the favor of Cardinal Calandrini, and by 'his help was named bishop of Savona by Paul II. Sixtus IV. transferred him to Molfetta and made him cardinal in 1473. His elevation to the papacy (Aug. 24, 1484) as the successor of Sixtus was owing to Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere, the subsequent Pope Julius II., who dominated the first years of his reign, Innocent himself being a weak, characterless personality, and of notoriously immoral life. Quarrels with Naples induced the pope to seek intimate relations with the Medici at Florence, already risen to high power; his son, Franceschetto, married the daughter of Lorenzo the Magnificent, and, to seal the union of the two houses, Innocent paved the way to the college of cardinals for the second son of Lorenzo. He summoned Christendom to a crusade against the infidels; but at the same time he entered into agreement with Sultan Bajazet II. to keep his brother, Jem, safely in Rome for the sum of 40,000 ducats yearly, and in 1490 received the pay for three years.
In three bulls of 1486 Innocent declared Henry VII. Tudor the lawful and rightful king of England, and threatened the severest ecclesiastical penalties against all who did not recognize his claims. He also con firmed the election of Maximilian of Austria. as king of the Romans, disregarding the protest of Charles VIII. of France. By the bull Summis desiderantes of Dec. 5, 1484, he gave the sanction of the Church to the prevalent trials for witchcraft (see WiTCHCRAPT). He strengthened the Inquisition in Spain by ap pointing Thomas of Torquemada inquisitor-general (see INQBisImioN), , and he issued a bull directing all rulers outside of Spain to deliver up heretics to this zealous persecutor. He preached a crusade against the Waldenses in Piedmont; and he sup plied fresh food for superstition in Rome and else where by solemnly importing, in 1492, the " holy lance " with which Christ's side was said to have been pierced, sent to him by the Sultan Bajazet. Innocent died July 25, 1492. He neglected the government of the Papal States and punished rob bers and rebels only when they were unable to pay. Everything at the Curia was for sale, and hundreds of new positions were created expressly to fill the papal coffers. Such is the dark background upon which the shining figure of Savonarola (q.v.) is projected. K. BENEATH.BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources for a history are in muratori, Bcriptores, iii. 2, pp. 1070-1071, 1189-1190, xx~ii. 87-88. The bull on witches, ed. W. Itrimer, appeared Schaffhausen, 1889, and is in Reich, Documents, 199-202, and that on the marriage of Henry VII. in the Camden Miscellany, vol. i., London, 1847. Consult: A. von Reumont, Gaechichte der Stadt Rom, iii. 1, pp. 187 eqq., Berlin, 1868; iden4 Lorenzo de Medici, $ 272 sqq., Leipsie, 1874; F. Gregoroviue, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, vii. 268 sqq., Stuttgart, 1880; Hagen, Die Papstwahlen 1484 -1492, Brixen, 1886; Creighton, Papacy, iv. 135-180; Pastor, Popes, iv. 288, 410, 458, v. 227-372; Ranks, Popes, i. 33, 308; Bower, pop##, iiL 254-258; Mirbt, Qu@ien, n. 220.
Innocent IX. (Giovanni Antonio Fachinetto): Pope 1591. He was born at Bologna July 22, 1519, and won the degree of doctor in law at his native
city in 1544. He then entered the service of Cardinal Farnese at Rome and was made bishop of Nicastro in Calabria by Pope Pius IV. In 1561 he was at the Council of Trent, in 1566 was sent as nuncio to Venice by Pius V. After the accession of Gregory XIII. (1572) he retired to his bishopric and governed it as a true shepherd- of the fold. Gregory honored and trusted him, making him member of the Council and of the Inquisition, patriarch of Jerusalem, and (Dec. 12, 1583) cardinal priest. The Spanish party of the cardinals chose him, Oct. 29, 1591, to succeed Gregory, XIV., and he at once arrayed himself on the side of Philip II. of Spain against Henry IV. of France. He was personally devout, took a zealous stand in favor of reform in the Church, and projected important and beneficial measures for improvement, but could do no more than outline his plans, since he died, Dec. 30, 1591, after a rule of only two months.
K. BENRATH.BIBLIOGRAPHY: ~ G Sgarella, yifa InnoanS8 IX., in appendix to B. Sacehi de Platina, Hiatoria .·de roiSa pontificum Romanorum, pp . 600-501, Cologne, 1626; Philippeon, in Hiatwisdw Zeitachrift, xxxix (1878), 447; M. Broach, Ouediclda des %ircAsnetaatea, vol. i., Gotha, 1880; Ranks, Popes, ii. 38; Bower. Popes, p. 326.
Innocent X. (Giovanni Battista Pamfili): Pope 1644-85. He was born at Rome 1574, and received preferment from Clement VIII., Gregory XV., and Urban VIII., the latter making him cardinal in 1629. He was chosen pope to succeed Urban, and occupied the see of Peter on Sept. 15, 1644. Pamfili had never concealed his sympathies for Spain, but was accepted by the French party as the most acceptable choice they were likely to get. The Barberinirelatives of the preceding pope-were deceived if they expected favor from Innocent. He started suits against them to recover moneys which they had misapplied and, when they fled from Rome, seized their property and palaces. At the same time he sought to advance his own family, and was completely under the influence of his brother's widow, Donna Olimpia (n6e Maidalchina), who was allowed so free a band with the public funds that nothing remained for public needs. The relations with the Barberini became more friendly when the French minister, Mazarin, espoused their cause and even sent French troops to Italy; their property and positions were then returned to them.
In the course of a dispute with the duke of Parma, Innocent captured the city of Castro, razed its fortifications, and took possession of the country. He also made a treaty with Venice by which he gained substantial concessions and himself merely promised-and later only half kept the promiseto contribute money for the war against the Turks. He showed himself ungrateful to Spain by encouraging a revolt in Naples; but his policy toward the newly founded kingdom of Portugal was dictated entirely by the Spanish ambassador in Rome. As a consequence the bishoprics in Portugal long remained vacant. The Peace of Westphalia was concluded in 1648 regardless of the protests of Innocent's nuncio, Chigi, and of the bull Zero domua dei, which he issued against it Nov. 26, 1648 (of. Mirbt, Quellen, pp. 294-295; see WESTPHALIA, PEACE op). The most important and momentous decision
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which he made was the condemnation of the five propositions from Jansen's Ateguatinua (May 30, 1653; cf. Mirbt, Quellen, pp. 295-296; see JANSEN, CORNELIUS, JANSENISM).
Decision and firmness in carrying through what he undertook can not be denied to Innocent; he was also energetic, and strove earnestly for order and quiet in Rome. But the chronic deficit in the treasury after Donna Olimpia's needs were supplied frustrated his efforts. The, same needs led, at least in part, to the preaching of jubilee indulgences in 1650, and to the suppression of a number of monas teries, though the latter step was justified, as the monks no longer observed their rules and failed to perform their spiritual duties. In his last years Innocent suffered deeper and deeper humiliation from the constantly growing arrogance and avarice of Donna Olimpia, still displayed after his death, on Jan. 7, 1655, when she refused to provide for his funeral on the ground that, as a poor widow, she had not the means. K. BENRATH.BIBLI-BAPHY: Roaatauseher, Hist. Innocentie X., Wittenberg, 1674; T. Giampi, Innoceneo X. Pa»Ai a la sua torte, Rome, 1878; A. von Reumont, Geschic" der Stadt Rom, iii. 2, Pp. 623, Berlin, 1870; M. Broach, Gesehichte des Kirdenetaates, i. 409 sqq., Goths, 1880; J. Bryce, Tha Holy Roman EmPire, pp. 236, 392,' New York, 1904; Cambridge Modern History, iv. 402, 415, 529, 600, 687-885, New York, 1906; Mirbt, Quallen, pp. 202--2os; Raake, Popes, ii. 322 et passim; Bower. Popes, iii. 330; and the literature under JANSENIBM.
Innocent %I. (Benedetto Odescalchi): Pope 1676--89. He was born at Como May 16, 1611, was educated by the Jesuits in his native city, and then studied law in Rome and Naples. He entered the Curia under Urban VIII. and was made cardinal by Innocent X. He won general respect at Rome by his simplicity of life, his uprightness, and his benevolence. As bishop of Novara in 1650 he applied the entire income of the see to the care of the sick and needy. Compelled to return to Rome by ill health, he distinguished himself among his colleagues of the college of cardinals by his fidelity to duty and his incorruptibility. After a vacancy of two months he succeeded Clement X. on Sept. 21, 1676, being chosen in accordance with the clearly expressed wish of the people of Rome and in spite of the opposition of Louis XIV. of France. Seldom has a pope taken in hand the work of reform with greater decision or more fruitful results. His first task was to regulate the finances, and in a short time he changed a deficit in the treasury into a surplus by strict economy, by cutting off sinecures, and by refraining from nepotism. He exacted similar frugality from the higher clergy and required bishops to reside in their dioceses. A congregation of cardinals was charged with the duty of inquiring into the moral and scholastic qualifications of prospeotive bishops. He admonished the lower clergy to adapt their preaching to the needs of the people, and not to neglect the training of the young.
In 1679 Innocent condemned as `° propositions of lax moralists" certain theses questionable on religious and moral grounds mostly taken from the writings of Escobar, Suarez, Busenbaum, and other Jesuits, and later he protected Tyrso Gonzalez in his attack upon Probabilism (q.v.), and even
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Innocent VIa-X1secured his election as general of the Jesuits. The powerful order never forgave him for his judgments, and in the quietistic controversy he was compelled to make some concessions. His sympathies at first were on the side of Molinos (q.v.) , but in the end he condemned quietism because of danger to the ecclesiastical organization. He was less complaisant in controversies with Louis XIV. of France (see REGALE). After the promulgation of the four articles of Gallicanism, Innocent refused all episcopal consecrations for France; and he was only transiently appeased by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1686. A new source of controversy was soon added. The pope wished the ambassadors of the powers in Rome to relinquish the right of giving shelter to those condemned by Roman justice; the emperor, Spain, Poland, and Sweden complied, but Venice recalled its representative from Rome, and Louis XIV. provided a wellarmed force of 800 men to maintain the right of franchise of his ambassador. Innocent put the ambassador under the ban and a rupture of diplomatic relations ensued. The king took Avignon from the pope, and when, in 1688, a French envoy came to Rome to treat concerning the appointment of an archbishop for Cologne, Innocent would not even grant an audience. Louis even contemplated putting a patriarch independent of the pope at the head of the French Church. Innocent acquiesced in an attempt at mediation by James II. of England, but there is ground for the suspicion that he did so only because he foresaw that it would be fruitless. He strongly disapproved of the efforts of James to restore Roman Catholicism in England by ill-advised and too precipitate measures, and when the Earl of Castlemaine appeared in Rome as envoy of James to treat in the matter, the pope received him politely, but brought the interview .to an end by severe fits of coughing, and intimated to the-envoy that the early morning was the beat time to travel in the climate of Rome. The fall of James was not unwelcome in Rome. To no land did Innocent render greater services than to Austria. At his entreaties the German princes and John Sobieski of Poland hurried to the relief of Vienna when besieged by the Turks in 1683, and his zeal brought about later the alliance of the emperor, Venice, and Poland against the crescent. He lived to see Hungary freed from the Turkish yoke, and the capture of Belgrade.
Innocent asserted the rights of the Church with energy, moderation, and dignity. He is to be accorded the praise of an enlightened mind, of one who strove to execute large plans and attain lofty aims by honorable means. Ranks says of him: " The papacy appears in him in its most estimable
character, mediating, and laying the foundations of peace." K. BizNaeTa.Bnaioaessaz: Innocent's decrees concerning the suppression of an office of the Immaculate Conception sppesred in English, Oxford, 1679; and his Epiatoha ad prineiPas, ad- L I. Berthier, 2 vole.. Rome. 1891-95. Co.. sult: Vita d'Innounw %1., Venice, 1690; A. von R.eumoat, GesehichEe der Stadt xom., iii. 2. PP. 636 nqq., Berlin, 1870; C. Gdrin in Rssus dea questions hiatoriquee, Oct., 1874; idem, Oct., 1878 (on the pope and the English Revolution); idem. Le Papa InnoeanE %1. et la rEaocation do 1'ldit de Nantes, ib.. Oct., 1878; M. Broach, Gearhialte des Kirc)tett-
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