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III. Hebrew Poetry

1. Recognition of the Nature of Hebrew Poetry

Antiquity throws little light upon the nature of Hebrew poetry. Josephus and some of the fathers incidentally spoke of metrical form; and medieval rabbis adduced the "parallelism of mem bers" as characteristic, but viewed the subject from a rhetorical or exegetical point of view (Ibn Ezra on Ps. ii. 3; Isa. xiv. 11,); for others, however, Biblical poetry had so little attraction that they, like Judah-ha-Levi, considered that Old Testament poetry excelled all other just because it lacked artistic form. During and after the Reformation exegetes were concerned only with the religious content of the Old Testament, and it was not until after the reaction against orthodoxy set in that literary characteristics received attention. In 1753 appeared Bishop Lowth's still authoritative De

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sacra poesi Hebrceorum (Eng. transl., Lectures on the Sacred ,Poetry of the Hebrews, 2 vols., London, 1787), in which he treated (1) the meter, (2) "the parabolic style," (3) the different kinds of poetry. Of great importance is the nineteenth lecture on the parallelism of members, which parallelism he divides into synonymous (Pa. cxiv. 1 sqq.) antithetic (Prov. xxvii: 6-7), and synthetic (Pa. xix. 8-11). To this work Herder furnished an excellent supplement in Vom Geist der ebrtiischen Poesie (2 vols., Dessau, 1782-83, Engt transl., The Spirit of Hebrew Poetry, Burlington, Vt., 1833). With few exceptions, mainly purely metrical questions, the topics included in this branch of Old Testament study have been avoided by modern exegetes.

With full justification Kuenen has denied Keil's contention that Hebrew poetry is the fruit of religion, and that therefore the Hebrews never had any secular poetry. Keil overlooked, on the one hand, that it was in the interest of religion that the compilers of the Old Testament selected as its contents what seemed most important to them and no doubt also to humanity; and, on the other hand, that the

Old Testament still contains many z. Employ- traces of non-religious poetry. That meat of song and poem had an important place

Poetry in the life of old Israel is seen from by He- the facts that historians referred to old brews. songs, and that prophets adopted their form. It is provable that in all con ditions of life the song or the chant was heard-at the wedding (Jer. vii. 34, xxv. 10; I Macc. ix. 39), even that of a king (Pa. xlv.); lovers broke into song (Isa. v. 1-2; Ezek. xxxiii. 32). The people sang in the harvest-field (Pa. 'lxv. 13), at the wine-press (Isa. xvi. 10; Jer. xxv. 30), at the discovery of water (Num. xxi.17 sq.), and at the feast (Isa. v.12; Ps. lxig. 12). Occasionally at the feast a host im provised the song (Amos vi. 5) or-the riddle (Judges xiv. 12), but usually singer and songstress were engaged to entertain the guests (II Sam. xix. 35; I Kings x. 12; Eccles. ii. 8; compare also David's position at Saul's court). Everywhere vocal music is the expression of joy; so closely are they related that the bard seems to be out of place in the atmos phere of gloom (Amos viii. 10; Job xxi. 12; Prov. xxv. 20). Nevertheless, death, too, called forth its own peculiar form of poetry; the "Lament," sung by trained mourning women (Jer. ix. 17 sqq.; cf. Amos v. 16) no doubt in a stereotyped form. If the deceased was a king or a hero, real poets composed new laments (II Sam. i. 19 sqq., iii. 33 sq.; II Chron. xxxv. 25). The sacrifice of the virgin daughter of Jephthah was annually commemorated in elegies (Judges id. 40); the warriors called to one another in rhythmic shouts (I . Sam. xviii. 7, xxi. 11, xxix. 5; Judges v. 29); on his return the conqueror either himself sang his exploits (Gen. iv. 23; Judges xv. 16), or employed a poet, whose songs, like that of Deborah, became the sources for the historian (cf. Num. xxi. 14, t; Josh. x. 12-13 Judges v. 11). Satire, too, was clothed in poetry (Judges v. 15-17; Hab. ii. 6 sqq.; Jer. vii. 29; Ezek. xix. 1, xxvi. 17); proverbs and parables were given in poetic measure (Judges ix. 7 sqq.; II Kings xiv. 9 sqq.; II Sam. xii. 1 sqq., xiv. 6 sqq.), which was adopted by the prophets (Iaa. v. 1, sqq., xxviii. 23 sqq.; Ezek. xvii. 2 sqq.) and the teacher (Proverbs and Ecclesiastes), and in the practise of it Solomon was considered chief (I Kings v. 12). How valuable the Israelites themselves considered their poetry is evinced by the many collections which were made; thus, one containing dirges is mentioned II Chron. xxxv. 25; there are also the older "Book of the wars of Yahweh" (Num. xxi. 14-15) and the " Book of Jasher " (perhaps " The Book of the Upright," Joshua x. 12-13.).

The Old Testament teaches, however, that poetry found its highest development in the sphere of religion; song, music, and the dance

3. Religious were always the indispensable form of Use of the cult (Ex. xxxii.18; Judges xxi. 21;

Poetry. II Sam. vi. 5, 14); a very old song, with which the ark was greeted, is preserved in Num. x. 35-36; at the Ephraimitic sanctuaries hymns were sung to harp accompaniment (Amos v. 23), and in Judah to that of the pipe and flute (Isa. xxx. 29. After the return there were temple-singers (Ezra ii. 41) who sang such lyrics as are preserved in the Psalter, a book which contains also purely individualistic hymns (xii. 1 sqq., xvii. 12 sqq., xviii. 18 sqq., xx. 7 sqq.). From Jer. xlv. 3, which sounds like a citation, and from Lamentations, especially chap. iii., the conclusion may be drawn that the religious lyric was well developed long before the Exile. But religious poetry found a yet wider field, for the style of the prophets is so decidedly rhythmical that rhetoric immediately glides over into poetry. No doubt this was an inheritance from ancient prophecy, which was accompanied by music (I Sam. x. 5; II Kings iii. 15; of. Ps. xhx. 4). The teachers of wisdom could not dispense with poetry, hence the proverb is expressed in gnomic form with its parables and rhythm; even Ecclesiastes, though ordinarily col orless and devoid of music, now and then glides into rhythm (Eccles. iii.. 1-8, xii. 1-1), and the author of the Book of Job has handled a religio philosophical problem in such a way that he would have been one of humanity's greatest poets had not the theologian in him dominated the poet.

Thus it appears that any presentation of Hebrew poetry is limited to the religious literature of the Old Testament, and the results would have to be modified were secular poetry as plentifully preserved as is the religious. Consequently a definite answer can not be given to the question

4. The Epic whether or not the Hebrews had a and the drama; only this may be said, that Drama none has been preserved, for the Song Lacking. of Solomon, if rightly understood, is not a drama, and Job is a collection of monologues and dialogues held together by nar rative. Still, from all this the inference is not, necessary that the Israelites in their secular poetry had no drama, but the salient characteristic of Semitic poetry makes the knowledge of the dramatic art among the Hebrews extremely doubtful. The same is true of the epic, which is hardly conceivable in a prophetic atmosphere that as a rule excludes every mythological element. But since at least one

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Semitic people, the Babylonians, had the epic, it seems likely that Israel, too, had once epic poetry, and reminiscences or suggestions of such a form are still found, though they are used merely for decorative purpose (Job iii. 8, ix. 13; Pa. lxxiv. 13-14). But if one understand by epic only hero-stories in poetic form, then the Hebrews had much of such poetry. If, now, with this reservation, one would get a survey of the whole field of Hebrew poetry, he would find a good aid in the Old Testament division of this variety of literature into lyric song and proverb. The lyric ~3ong in the secular field embraces love-songs, war-songs, and dirges, all of

which are found in the religious area, g. Forms as given in Pa.; Ex. xv.; Deut. xxxii.;

Mentioned I Sam. ii.; Nahum i.; Hab. iii., and in the Old Lamentations. As special kinds of Testament. poetry the Old Testament mentions the

prayer-hymn (Pa. lxxi.1; Hab. iii. 1, cf. Pa. lxxii. 20) and the song of praise (Ps. cxlv.1). The "proverb" has a far wider range. This is directed rather to the intellect than to the feeling, is complex, combines apparently heterogeneous elements, and gives in condensed, often enigmatical, form an experience or a moral truth (cf. I Sam. xxiv. 14; Ezek. xii. 22-23, xviii. 2; Prov. i. 1, x. 1, xxv. 1); it is used by the philosopher (Job xxvii. 1, xxix. 1), the seer (Nun. xxiii. 7, 18), the allegorizer (Ezek. xvii. 2, xxiv. 3), and the mocker (Isa. xiv. 4; Mic. ii. 4; Hab. ii. 6). The following is the range of the use of the proverb: (1) in sentences like those just given, riddles, and dark sayings (Prov. i. 6); (2) it means the riddle proper (Judges xiv. 12 sqq.; I Kings x. 1); (3) it stands for fables (Judges ix. 7-8; Il Kings xiv. 9-10); (4) for parables (II Sam. xii. 1 sqq., xiv. 6 sqq.; Isa. v. 1 sqq., xxviii. 23 sqq.); (5) for allegories (Ezek. xvii. 2, xxiv. 3); (6) for satires and mockeries (Hab. ii. 6); (7) for expressions of wisdom (Pa. xlix.; Prov. i~ix.; Eccles.; Job); (8) for didactic presentation of history (Pa. xcv., lxxviii.); (9) and for prophetic literature (Nun. xii. 8, xxiii. 7, 18; Dan. v. 12). But the line between the lyric and the proverb is not sharply drawn, and the two overlap and interchange.

Absolute certainties about the artistic form of Hebrew poetry are very few; still it may be said that criticism has established the following facts:

(1) Poetry is not satisfied with ordi6. Charac- nary diction, but searches for sonorous,

teristics of rare, ancient expressions; it often uses Hebrew a different relative, longer pronominal Poetry. suffixes, different nominal endings, and

has a preference for alliteration, assonances and word pictures; of a conscious use of rime for metrical purposes there is no trace. (2) Owing to its kinship to music and the dance, poetry demands a form controlled by rhythm. But here is the least known area, for, whereas the Arabs had a developed meter long before they knew how to write, the Old Testament poetry takes such form that many have given up all hope of finding a meter at all, in the place of which they discover merely the " thought-rhythm," the so-called " parallelism of members." The simplest form of this is the synonymous parallelism, in which the second part of the line or verse repeats in different form the

sense of the first (Pa. ii. 4; Job vi. 8; Isa. v. 7; Song of Sol. viii. 6); at times only a part of the first line is repeated (Job iii. 8), or the picture is followed by the fact (Prov. ii. 22; Job vii. 9); at times the two members bear the same relation to each other as the obverse and the reverse of a coin (Song of Sol. vii. 10). A second form is known as the antithetical, in which the sense of the two members is opposed (Pa. xviii. 27; Prov. xi. 1). Besides these two varieties, Lowth names a third, the synthetic, in which the members merely hang together without being parallel or antithetic (cf. Pa. iii. 2, xi. 3, xxix. 1; Job xiii. 16, xxxiii. 29; Prov. ii. 31; Ex. xv. 16). Ordinarily the parallelism has two members, at times three (Song of Sol. iv. 10; Ps. ii. 2, vi. 6, liv. 3), four (Ps. cxiv. 1-2; Deut. xxxii. 11; Judges v. 4, 14), and even as many as six (Lam. i.1). (3) Altogether different is the problem, however, if the search is for the resolution of Hebrew poetry into a true rhythm and if parallelism is regarded merely as a frequent accompaniment. Merx, for example, sees in parallelism merely a rhetorical law which may accompany, but does not constitute, the poetic form, and Grimme goes so far as to deduce parallelism directly from the rhythm. Here appears the question often affirmatively answered, and as frequently answered in the negative, whether or not a meter can be pointed out in Hebrew poetry. The assertion that the Israelites had a verse measure is old. Josephus says that Moses wrote two poems in hexameter (Ex. xv.; Deut. xxxii.), and David some in trimeters, and others in pentameter. Similar claims are found in Eusebius and Jerome; and the latter discovers in Job the hexameter, in Lam. i., ii., iv., the Sapphic measure, and in Lam. iii. the trimeter. It must be remembered, however, that, on the one hand, these authors were endeavoring to remove the prejudice of their readers against the Hebrew, and, on the other, that only by comparing the Hebrew with the Greek could they make Hebrew poetry intelligible; nevertheless their testimony, especially that of Jerome, is of importance. It goes without saying that the discovery of a meter would be a great help to the textual critic and the exegete, consequently a number of scholars have set themselves the task of searching for the key to this mystery. They fall into two groups, the one of which (represented by Merx, Bickell, Gietmami) tries to find the same meter as is found in Syriac poetry, Servian hero-tales, and new Romance poetry where the rhythm is produced by a definite number of syllables. Bickell, the ablest champion of this theory, claims that in the verse every other syllable is accented, and that in the foot the accent always falls on the penultimate; consequently, that in verses of even number of syllables the measure would be trochaic, in those of uneven number, iambic; and he has formulated a complete system of rules, in accordance with which different syllables may at times be dropped, the half-vowels counted or omitted, the suffixes changed, and so on. The other group (Ley, Neteler, Briggs, Grimme, Duhm, Bertholet, Gunkel) counts only the tone-beat, regarding the unaccented and slightly accented syllables between the tone-beats as unessential to the meter. Ley has found hexameters, octameters,

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decameters, and elegiac pentameters, which may be divided into smaller parts and interchange with one another: Grimme, however, has his strophes consist of from two to four verses with from two to five tone-beats, but thinks that the verses must have the same measure; consequently verses of four beats and three beats, or of four and five beats, are not interchangeable, while those of four may interchange with verses of two beats, and verses with five beats (2+3) interchange with verses of two and three beats. In general agreement with this scheme are the conclusions of the exhaustive investigation of Sievers, who found, however, a definite rhythm, fitted both for song and recitation, the so-called pseudo-anapest meter. But too much caution can not be exercised in judgment of these systems, for in all there are admitted difficulties. Every system of metrics rests not only upon laws, but upon incalculable quantities, which no acuteness can discover where every tradition is wanting. But difficulty attends search for the laws of expression, inasmuch as the original pronunciation is no longer certainly known. Moreover, the text is by no means certain; in places it is demonstrably corrupt. Another difficulty is found in the uncertain boundaries of Hebrew poetry. The Masoretes have furnished only Psalms, Proverbs, and Job with poetical accentuation; but this is decidedly erroneous, since other books contain poetry. In different compositions different forms may be expected, as, for instance, in the recited speech and the chanted song; and while it is undoubtedly true that most prophecy contains true poetry, it is hardly conceivable that the authors felt themselves bound to any particular meter. Bickell is able to remove all of these objections by citing Syriac analogies, but proof is entirely lacking that the Hebrews had the same method of making poetry as the Syrians. Moreover, Bickell is forced to ignore the Masoretic notations, and his system is absolutely irreconcilable with Josephus's and Jerome's statements. More probable is the other system, though Ley and Grimme with their rules go far beyond recognized knowledge. In favor of this system there are strong reasons: in the first place, the Masoretic accentuations can be utilized; in the second place, good results are obtainable in spite of a doubtful text; and it is hardly to be denied that double verses of three plus three tone-beats occur so frequently that they may be conceived as governing the normal meter of the Israelites; and besides, the system harmonizes with the statements of Josephus and Jerome. To this it must be added that there are remarkable analogies in Babylonian literature Another form of Hebrew poetry, the so-called Vinah or dirge-meter, has been richly illuminated through the investigations of Budde. This is a common line followed by a shorter broken one, usually three tone-beats followed by two, in which Ley and Grimme see lines of five tone-beats (Amos v. 2; Ezek. xix. 2; Isa. i. 21 sqq., xiv. 4 sqq.; Lam. i.-iv.); this measure seems most fit to represent the mood of the mourning-women. When this meter is found in such poems as Ps. xix. 7, sqq. Ixv. 5-8, lxxxiv. 1 sq., ci.; Isa. xxxii. 9-14, it is to be regarded as merely a poetic device. (5) Finally the Old Testament has alphabetical (acrostic) poems, Ps. ix.-x., xxv., xxxiv., xxxvii., oxi., cxii.,cxix.,cxlv.; Lam. i. iv.; Prov. xxxi. 10 sqq., and no doubt Nahum i. 2-ii. 3 (according to Bickell also Ecclus. li.13-20). Among these are many. variations, from such Psalms as cad. and cxii., in which a new letter begins every half-verse, to Ps. cxix., where every letter is eight times repeated as an initial. In some the alphabetical order is barely visible (Ps. ix. sq.; Nahum i), a fact which can be due only to faulty transmission; indeed, it seems that Gunkel and Bickell have been able prac tically to reconstruct the Nahum passage. These alphabetical songs tell further that the poets devel oped the stanza in its unity, and in complexity carried it at least as far as to the length of sixteen lines, as in Pa. cxix.; a further development was the refrain used in Ps. x&i. 5, 11, xiiii. 5, 11, lit. 9, 17, lxB%. 3, 7, 19; also in the Prophets, Amos i. 3, 6. A variation of this is found in the repetition of the opening verse (Isa. v. 8, 11, 18, 22; Hab. ii. 9, 12, 15). Considering such facts as these, many students have followed Kc6ster in supposing that all Old Testament poetry must be composed of stanzas; but a difference of opinion has arisen upon the question whether single lines (so Sommer, Delitzsch) or the distich or tristich (so Hupfeld) should be considered the unit of the stanza. This question has found an elaborate treatment in D. H. Müller's Die Propheten in ihrer ursprunglichen Form (Vienna, 1896), but his results appear to be as doubtful as Bertholet's division of Ezek. xv. and Bickell's and Duhm's of Job iii.

(F. Buhl.)

Bibliography: 1. From the comparative standpoint 0onsuit: W. Gesenius, Geschichte der hebraischen S prade and Schrdft, Leipsic, 1815; E. Renan, Hist. p&t&rala des lanpun ainitiques, Paris, 1863; B. Stade, Ernauta prafung des swrischen dam ph6nisischen and hebräiwSan Verwan& schaftaprades, Leipsic, 1875; F. Hommel, Die senitieden Völker and S prachen, Leipsic, 1883; P. de Lagarde, Ueberadt über die im Aramduck Arabiaoh and Hebräiech 4bliche Bildung der Nomina, Göttingen, 1889; W. Wright, Lacturroa on the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages, Cambridge, 1890; J. Barth, Die Nominolbildung in den semitischen Sprachan, Leipsic, 1894; O. E. Lindberg. Verpleichende GrammaSk der semitischen Sprachen, Gothenberg, 1898; H. Zimmern, Verpuichende Gram- der umi&ehen SPrarhan, Berlin, 1898; T. Nöldeke, Die semitisohen Bprachen, Leipsic, 1899.

On the history of the study of the Hebrew language: H. Ewald and L. Dukes, Beiträge zur OewAidue der dlfssten Auelepung and Spraduerkldrung des A. T., Stuttgart, 1844; H. Hupfeld, De rei gramnwtiea aped judasos inigis antiquissimisqw eaipOribua, Halle. 1846; L. Geiger, Das Studium der hebräischen Sprache in Deutschland, Breslau, 1870; A. Berliner, Beiträge zur hebr*iacTwa Gramemetik in Talmud and Midreach, Berlin, 1879; 13. Baer and H. L. Struck, Dikduke ha-teamim des Ben Ascher, Leipsic, 1879; W. Basher, Die hebritische Sprachwissenschaft room 10. bi, sum IB. Jahrhundert, Leipsic, 1892; idem, Die An/d»pe der hebräiachon Grammatik ib. 1895; E. Nestle, Marpinalien undMateriakn, Tübingen, 1893 Grammars and lexicons are by: W. Gesenius, Hebräie&e Grammatik, Leipsic, 1813, 26th ed. by E. Kautaacb,1902, Eng. trenel., Edinburgh, 1880; idem, Ausfflhrlidtes prammatiach-kritisrhea Lehr9eb4ude der hobrdischen Spraauis, ib. 1817; idem, Thesaurus philologiew mitieus lingua hebraxa . .

V. T.,ib. 1835-58; J. Oleheueen, Lebrbuch der hebräischen Sprache, Brunswick, 1861; F. BStteher, Aueführliches Lehrbuch der hebräischen Sprarhe, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1866-e8; H. Ewald Lelwburd der habraieclwn Smache, Göttingen, 1870, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1879; B. 13tade, Lehrbuch der hebräischen Grammatik Leipsic, 1879; E. König, Lehrpebdude der hebräiaden Sprache, ib. 1881-97; A. Mailer, Outlines of Hebrew Synhx, Edinburgh, 1888; S. R. Driver, Use of fns Tenon in Hebrew, London, 1892; F. Brown,

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S. R. Driver, and C. A. Briggs, A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the O. T., Oxford, 1892-1906; C. Siegfried and B. Stade, Hebroiechea Wörterbuch z um A. T., Leipsic, 1893; A. B. Davidson, Hebrew Syntax, Edinburgh, 1896; J. R. Kennedy, Hebrew Synonyms, London, 1898; J. D. Wijnkoop, Hebrew Syntax, ib. 1898. Consult also the literature under Masorah.

II. The subject is, of course, to be studied with the help of the works mentioned in and under Biblical Introduction, especially such as Driver, Introduction. A very helpful book is the Beilage of E. Kautzseh to his Heilige Schrift des A. T., Freiburg, 1896, Eng. transl., Outline of the Hitt. of the O. T., London, 1898. The best book in English, which covers all phases of the subject, is C. A. Briggs, The Study of Holy Scripture. New York, 1899. The subject of the study of the Old Testament as literature has during the past decade awakened wide interest. The following are some of the works evoked by this new movement: The Bible as Literature, by various hands, New York, 1896; S. Leathes, The Claims of the Old Testament , ib. 1897; I. Abrahams Chapters on Jewish Literature. ib. 1899; R. Moulton, Literary Study of the Bible, Boston, 1899; idem, Short Introduction to the Literature of the Bible, ib. 1903; L. Abbott, Life and Literature of the Hebrews, ib. 1901; J. P. Peters, Early Hebrew Story, New York, 1904; M. Dods, The Bible, its Origin and Nature,.ib. 1905; C. F. Kent, The Origin and Permanent Value of the O. T., ib. 1906; idem, The Student's O . T., vols. i., ii., iv. (the introductions and appendices are of special value); N. Mann, The Evolution of a Great Literature, Boston, 1905; J. H. Gardiner. The Bible as English Literature, New York, 1906; W. F. Adeney, How to Read the Bible, New York, 1907. A book not antiquated is J. Forst, Geschichte der biblischen Lib eratur, Leipsic, 1867-70. For a survey of the conservative literature the reader is' referred to the literature under Biblical Criticism, where the works of Beattie, Munhall, Green, and Orr are mentioned and do justice to the case for the traditional theory of the origin of the O. T. III. In addition to the works of Herder and L owth mentioned in the text, the dissertation of the latter in his commentary on Isaiah is to be noted. The subject is usually discussed in the introduction to the commen taries on the books which contain poetry, and especially those on the poetical and prophetical books. For the English student the beat summary is in C. A. Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, chaps. xiv.-xvii., New York, 1899. Consult further on the subject of Hebrew poetry: Koster, in TSK, iv. (1831), 40 sqq.; F. Delitzsch, Zur Geschichte der fvdischen Poeaie, Leipsic, 1836; J. G. Wen rieh, De7~poeseos Hebraicw . . . indole, ib. 1843; E. Meier Die ForX der hebräischen Poesie, Tübingen, 1853; idem, Geschichte der poetischen National-Literatur, Berlin, 1856; I. Taylor, Spirit of Hebrew Poetry, London, 1861; H. Ewald, Dichter des Alten Bundea, Göttingen, 1868, Eng, transl., Poetical Books of the O. T., London, 1880; H. Steiner, Ueber hebräische Poesie, Basel, 1873; Budde, in TSK, 1874, pp. 747 sqq.; ZATW, ii (1882), 1 sqq., 49 sqq., iii (1883), 299 sqq., xi (1891), 234 sqq., xii (1892), 31 sqq., 261 sqq.; A. Werfer, Die Poeaie der Bibel, Tübingen, 1875; G. Bickell, Metrices Biblicce regula. exemplie dllustrato, Innsbruck, 1879; idem, Carmina V. T. metrics, ib. 1882; idem, in ZDMG, 1880, pp. 557 sqq.; H. Gietmann, De re metrics Hebroorum, Freiburg, 1879; B. Neteler, Grundzupe der hebräischen Met rik der Psalmen, Münster, 1879; W. Wickes, The Accentuation of the Three So-called Poetical Books of the O. T., Oxford, 1882; M. Heilprin, The Historical Poetry of the Ancient Hebrews, 2 vols.. New York, 1879 1880; G. H. Gilbert, The Poetry of Job, Chicago, 1889; H. Hartmann, Die hebräische Verakunst, Berlin, 1894; H. Grimme, in ZDMG, 1 (1896), 529 sqq.; P. Vetter, Die Metrik des Buches Hiobs, Freiburg, 1897; P. Ruben, in JQR, xi (1899), 431 sqq.; E. Sievers, Metrische Studien, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1901-05; O. Hauser, Die Urform der Pealmen. Das erste Bach des Psalters in metriecher Um schrift and Ueberaetzung, G roesenhain, 1907; B. Marr, Altyvdische SPrache, Metrik and Lunartheozophie, part i., Dux, 1907; E. König, Die Poesie des A. T., Leipsic, 1907; DB, iv. 2-13; EB, iii. 3793-3804; JE, x. 93-100; while the files of the JBL and PSBA contain very much that is pertinent, especially in treatment of in dividual books,

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