EASTER COMMUNION: The celebration of the Lord's Supper early became one of the chief of the rites connected with Easter. Those who had become cold and lax in their attention on religious ceremonies felt that they must, on Easter, if at no other time, commune. In the council held in the Lateran in Rome in 1215, that which had become a practise was made an obligation, and the twenty-first canon of this council reads thus: "Every believer, of either sex, who has come to years of discretion, must at least once a year confess honestly his sins to his own priest and perform the penance which may be enjoined as far as he is able, and at least on Easter solemnly receive the Eucharist, unless his priest out of sufficient grounds has forbidden its reception. Whoever refuses so to do will be excluded from the Church, and on death be refused Christian burial.' Hefele, Concilieregeachelhte, v. 888.
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I. Names, Extent, and Branches: Various names are used to designate the great division of Christendom which is considered in this article. The full official title is "the Holy Orthodox Catholic Apostolic Eastern Church" (J dyfa op>g6dogos, KaSoRcrc~ 5rroaroicKtj avarolsKfj _KO.r)aia). The Roman Church claims all these titles, except "Oriental," for which it substitutes "Roman," and claims them exclusively. The name " Eastern (or Oriental) Church " designates its origin and geographical territory. The "Orthodox Church" expresses its close adherence to the ecumenical system of doctrine and discipline as settled by the seven ecumenical councils before the separation from the Western or Latin Church. On this title the chief stress is laid, and it is celebrated on a special day called "Orthodoxy Sunday," in the beginning of Lent, when a dramatic repreaelftation of the old ecumenical councils is given in the churches, and anathemas are pronounced on all heresies. The common designation "Greek Church" is not strictly correct, but indicates the national origin of the church and the language in which most of its creeds, liturgies, canons, and theological and ascetic literature are composed, and its worship mainly conducted.
The Eastern Church embraces the Greek, and the Russian and other Slavonic nationalities. It has its seat in Eastern Europe--chiefly in Turkey, Servia, Rumania, Greece, Russia, and some parts of Austria-and in Western Asia. Bulgaria was long a bone of contention between Constantinople and Rome and one of the causes of separation, but is now an independent branch of the "Orthodox" Church, ruled by an exarch (see Bulgaria; Bulgarians, Conversion Of The). In Western Europe and America there are congregations of merchants and immigrants or connected with embassies (for America, see below, IV.). The total number of adherents of the Eastern Church is about 100,000,000, of whom 85,000,000 belong to tile Russian Church. The Eastern Church thus ranks thirc'. among the three great divisions of Christendom, the Roman Catholic Church being credited with 230,000,000 adherents, and the Protestant Churches with 140,000,000.
The Eastern Church is divided into at least fifteen branches or parts, each independent of the other. The first rank is held by the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople (see Constantinople; Patriarch). Then follow (2) Alexandria (see Alexandria, Patriarchate Of); (3) Antioch; (4j Jerusalem (see Jerusalem, Patriarchate Of); (5) Cyprus (which was recognized as a bishopric by the Council of Ephesus in 431 and includes 160,000 Greek Catholics), (6) Russia (q.v.), (7) Karlovita (the metropolitan see of the Hungarian Serviane); (8) Montenegro (q.v.), (9) the archbishop- ric of Sinai (independent since 1782); (10) Greece (independent of Constantinople since 1852; see Greece); (11) the metropolitan see of Hermannstadt (for the Rumanians in Hungary); (12) the exarchate of Bulgaria (since 1870; see Bulgaria); (13) the metropolitan see of Czernowitz (for Bukowine and Dalmatia, including the Ruthenians and other Cisleithanians); (14) Servia (since 1879; see Servia); (15) Rumania (since 1885; See Rumania). The Georgian Church has been absorbed by the Russian. The Church of Bosnia and Herzegovina (q.v.), with three independent metropolitans, has a loose relation to the ecumenical patriarch. Constantinople, the city of the first Christian emperor, is still the natural center of the whole Eastern Church and may again become, in Christian hands, for the Eastern world what Gregory Nazianzen described it to be in the fourth century, "the eye of the world, the strongest by sea and land, the bond of union between East and West, to which the moat distant extremes from all aides come together, and to which they look up as to a common center and emporium of the faith."
II. History: The Eastern Church has no continuous history like the Roman Catholic and the Protestant. It has long periods of monotony and stagnation, and is isolated from the main current of progressive Christendom. Yet this i. Gfeneral Church represents the oldest tradition Charao= in Christendom, and for several cen- tics.
turies was the chief bearer of our religion. It still occupies the sacred territory of primitive Christianity, and claims moat of the Apostolic sees, as Jerusalem, Antioch, and the churches founded by Paul and John in Asia Minor and Greece. All the Apostles, with the exception of Peter and Paul, labored and died in the East. From the old Greeks the Church inherited the language and certain national traits of character, while it incorporated also much of Jewish and Oriental piety. It produced the first Christian literature, apologies of the Christian faith, refutations of heresies, commentaries on the Bible, sermons, homilies, and ascetic treatises. The great majority of the early Fathers, and at least some of the Apostles, used the Creek language. Polycarp, Ignatius, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius, Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa, Chrysostom, Cyril of Jerusalem, and Cyril of Alexandria, the first Christian emperors beginning with Constantine the Great, together with a host of martyrs and confessors, belong to the Greek communion. It elaborated the ecumenical dogmas of the Trinity and Christology, and ruled the first seven ecumenical councils, which were all held in Constantinople or its immediate neighborhood
I (Nicea, Chalcedon, Ephesus). The palmy period|
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Three periods may be distinguished in the history of the Eastern Church: (1) The Classical or Productive period, the first five or six centuries, has just been characterized. The last great theologian of the East is John of Damascus (d. before 754), who summed up the scattered results of the labors of the preceding Fathers into a tolerably complete system of theology; but he is an isolated phenomenon. The process of degeneracy and stagnation had already set in; and the former 2. Three life and vigor gave way to idle epecu-
Period". latione, distracting controversies, dead formalism, and traditionalism. (2) The Byzantine period, corresponding to the Middle Ages of the Latin Church, extends from the rise of Mohammedanism to the fall of Constantinople (650-1453). Here are found the gradual separation from the West and from all progressive movements; dependence on the imperial court at Constantinople; continuation of a certain literary activity; philological and Biblical studies in slavish dependence on the Fathers; commentaries of CEcumenius (c. 990), Theophylact (d. after 1107), Euthymius Zigabenus (d. after 1118); large literary collections, classical and Christian, of Photius (c. 890), Balsamon, Zonaras, Suidae, and Simeon Metaphraetee; the liturgical works of Maximus, Sophronius, Simeon of Thessalonica; the Byzantine historians; the iconoclastic controversy (726-842; see Images And Image Worship , II); inroads and conquests of Mohammedanism (from 630) in Syria, Persia, Egypt, North Africa; temporary suspension of the patriarchates of Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem; finally, the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, and the extinction of the Greek Empire (1453), which led to the immigration of Greek scholars (Chatcondylas, Chrysoloras, Gemietoe Plethon, Michael Apostolius, Theodore Gaza, George of Trebizond, and others) to the West, the revival of letters, the study of the Greek Testament, and prepared the way for the Reformation. During this period of decline in its original home, the Greek Church made a great conquest in the conversion of the Slavonians (the Bulgarians and Russians) in the ninth and tenth centuries, while the Latin Church was converting the Celtic and Teutonic races.(3) The Modern period may be dated from the downfall of the Greek Empire (1453). It presents in Asia stagnation and slavery under the rule of the IV.-4
Turks but great tenacity and independence as to all internal affairs; in Europe, rapid external growth through the rising power of Russia, with some reforms in manners and customs and the introduction of Western culture, protests against Romanizing and evangelical movements, the orthodox confession of Petrus Mogilas (1642), the Synod of Jerusalem (1672), the Russian Church, the patriarchate of Moscow, the reforms of Patriarch Nikon (d. 1681) and of the Czar Peter the Great (d. 172b), the reaction of the Old Believers (Reakolniki), the Holy Synod of St. Petersburg (since 1721), the New Greek Church in Hellaa (since 1833), with prospects for the future, depending chiefly on Russia.
In the history of the Eastern Church there have been no organized bloody tribunals of orthodoxy like the Spanish Inquisition, no sys$' Intol"r' tematic and long-continued pereecu- anoe and Lions like the crusades against the Per""cn- Waldenses, Alb nses, and Huguenots, tion. and no massacre of St. Bartholomew. But the Greek Church of old mercilessly expelled and exiled Avian, Nestorian, Eutychian, and other heretics, and persecuted the Paulicians (835). For centuries none of the Oriental Churches except the Russian has been in a position to exercise jurisdiction over heretics and dissenters, being themselves only tolerated by the Turkish or Egyptian governments. Modern Russia has enforced severe measures against the Stundiste and other dissenting bodies and has withheld from Lutherans in the Baltic provinces certain privileges (such as exemption from military service) sacredly promised by the Czar. Secession from the national orthodox Church is rigidly prohibited. No one can be converted in Russia from one religion or sect to another, except to the national orthodox Church; and all the children of mixed marriages, where one parent belongs to it must be baptized and educated in it. The spirit of fanatical intolerance has manifested itself recently in the atrocious persecution of the Jews as it did earlier in 1881; but it would be unfair to hold the Eastern Church responsible for these excesses.
No two Churches are so much alike in their creed, polity and cultus, as the Greek and Roman; and yet no two are such irreconcilable
4. The rivals, perhaps for the very reason of Sohism their affinity. They agree much more Ikut ~a than either agrees with any Protee-Wsst. tant Church. They were never organically united. They differed from the beginning in nationality, language, and genius, as the ancient Greeks differed from the Romans; yet they grew up together, and stood shoulder to i shoulder in the ancient conflict with paganism and heresy. They cooperated in the early ecumenical councils, and adopted their doctrinal and ritual I decisions. But the removal of the seat of empire from Rome to Constantinople by Diocletian and Constantine, the development of the papal monarchy in the West, and the establishment of a Western empire in connection with it, laid the foundation of a schism which has never been healed. The i controversy culminated in the rivalry between the ~ patriarch of Constantinople and the pope of Rome.
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The points in which the Greek Church differs from the Roman are the following: the single procession of the Holy Spirit (against
6. Points the fdioqxce), which is as far as the of Council of Constantinople in 381 wept; once. the aqunlity of the five patriarchs. and the rejection of the papacy as anantichristian innovation and usurpation; the right of the lower clergy (priests and deacons) to marry (though only once); communion in both kinds; trine immersion the only valid form of baptism; the use of the vernacular languages in worship; a number of minor ceremonies, as the use of common or leavened bread in the Eucharist, infant communion, the repetition of holy unction (euXoacov) in sickness, etc.
On the fruitless negotiations for union between the Lutheran and the Greek Church, and the
e. Bela - Anglican and the Greek and Russian dons Churches, cf. Schaff, Creeds, i. 50 sqq.
to Protes- and 74 sqq. The Reformation of the tant sixteenth century had no effect upon
Churches. the Oriental Church. The reform movement of Cyril Lucar (q.v.) who, as patriarch of Constantinople, attempted to in graft Calvinism upon the old trunk, failed com pletely: he was strangled to death, and his body thrown into the Bosphorus (1638); and his doc trines were condemned by synods in 1638, 1643, and 1672 (cf. Schaff, Creeds, i. 54 sqq.). In recent times, however, German universities are often fre quented by Russian and Greek students; and the works of German scholars have exerted some modifying influence. The Old Catholic movement was followed with interest; and the Old Catholic conferences in Bonn (1874 and 1875) were attended by several dignitaries from Greece and Russia. There has been also considerable intercourse between Greek and Anglican bishops. The Greek Church is not so strongly committed against Prot estantism as the Roman, and may therefore learn something from it. [Yet converts to Protestantism from the Roman Catholic Church have been far more numerous than from the Greek Church, and the thought of Roman Catholicism has been influ enced by Protestantism far more than the thought of Greek Catholicism. A. H. N.]IM Doctrine, Polity, and Liturgy: The Eastern Church holds fast to the decrees and canons of the seven ecumenical councils (see Councils And Synods,§ 3 ). Its proper creed is that adopted at Nicaea in 325, enlarged at Constantinople 381, and indoraed at Chalcedon 451, ~w-i~th-out the Latin ~l
(See Constantinopolitan Creed). Th18 CreeO la the basis of all Greek catechisms and t
1. Creed. systems of theology, and a regular part of worship. Th Greeks have never ac aaw_1e4=d_aLJQ=_thLA ostl I oam -9r" whier e of Western origin, n hic is of Western origin, nor the Athanasigg and is likewise of Western origin. Besides this ecumenical creed, the astern r~lree subord1*a&tLg2JnWpjws, which define her position aQf~ namely: ga a Romanism and Protestantism (1) The "rthodoxfQnf_Mion" Of Petrus Mogilas (q.v.), metropolitan of Kief (1643), a catechetical exposition of the Nicene Creed , the Lord's Prayer and the beatitudes, and the decalogue; (2) the " Confession of Dositheos or~.l~sasea~f.t13a qvnod of 1 . Lpl m " t 167~1; and (3) the "~fatchim" of Philaret, metropolitan of Mos cow, a~Ete,d lby tHgvEr R Svt>~ of~tt~·=.~-d published in all the languages of Russia. (For text of these creeds and confessions, cf. Schaff, Creeds, ii. 273-542; and J. Michalcescu, see bibliography below.) [Mention should also be made of the work of Gennadius II. of Constantinople and of Metrophanes Kritopulus (qq.v.), the former of whom wrote s brief document in
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The doctrinal system of the Eastern Church is, upon the whole, more simple and less developed than that of the Roman, though in some respects more subtle and metaphysical. The only serious doctrinal difference is that on the processon of the Holy Spirit (see FILIOQUE CONTROVERSY). The Greek Church holds to the leading principles, but rejects many of the consequences or results of Roman Catholicism. It adheres to the theology of the Greek Fathers down to John of Damascus, and ignores the succeeding scholastic theory of the schoolmen who completed the Roman system. The Eastern theology remains rigidly in the fragmentary state of the old councils. ThP
to tthe a ±Wn fil2lied _ p rptee4t further progress both m lid and 'tg'es`5if" it' agba'tTon, ~ well as fait the venerable ' he (''~r_reek theolo" is in on t e anetrinP ·nf f' and of Shriat, but very de ec~ive on the doctrine of man and the order of s ThP Fad van t;n+.. all .._*" ^f t ~eo O ,r.al ,s-~nd C; ria?nln®ira.ltbtleties,, especially ~nn~the~lo ip~,.~?$- e w~ic found little or no response in the eat; bn~_,t it ,innnrr?d .thr· ~,~p~py~pies, the deve gLent o the A ustinian and later van li .stet .hPnln , It took the most intense w"t m +h, =i+FP,.pnnP Iwtwt~·n m" anrl hU&nstasis the hO~Ttt~o0~i (1 h^~??^~^~^n .hP rala+.inn" o ;i"the n of the a er,'£he eternal ggWAt a eternal ~~or~~! !.i +1,uGtniri +ho T vi_ rilhoxvc_ t a ,nla+,.,.. ni_thA two natllre9 in Cthe a ~'~.M2^aad~suotw~ but W88 g~, ~Tinnalv tmnhlorl ues~ about predestination, vicarious M .-Man and imputation, conver sion and regeneration, faith and good works, merit and demerit, vital union with Christ, and cognate doctrines, which absorbed the attention a..,- Christ~_ndom. The use for this difference must a sought in the re~v-aa'ling~gt~a ph sical, rhet "cal and o~b e i ~ of the ·ch,-m rited p partly from Asia, party from Greece-as distinct from the practical, logical, and subjective tendency of the Western Churches, which 6 derived from the Roman and the Teutonic nationalities. The difference is,~,y~ d as early as the Nicene~Cr®dy~with i r~y~Gal te~+.~n" as G~mnare~w`ltl~th~. i~.,"..~T ~QiL~ W~at~1P".:~. which origi_ hated in the West, and is very little used in the East.
The Greek Church is a patriarchal oligarchy, in distinction from the papal monarchy. The epie- copal hierarchy is retained, the pa- s. G"" pacy rejected. Centralization is un rn- known in the East. The patriarchs of meat. Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, are equal in rights, though the first has a primacy of honor. The czar of Russia, however, exercises a sort of general protectorate, and may be regarded as a rival to the pope of
Rome, but has no authority in matters of doctrine, and can make no organic changes. The Eastern hierarchy resembles the Jewish type. The Greek priest within the veil of the sanctuary is concealed from the eyes of the people; but in social respects he is nearer the people than the Roman priest. He is allowed, and even compelled, to marry once, but forbidden to marry twice. Celibacy is confined to bishops and monks. Absolution is given only in the form of a prayer, " May the Lord absolve thee," instead of the positive form, " I absolve thee." The confessional exists, but in a milder form, with less influence and abuse, than in Romanism. The laity are more independent; and the Russian czar, like the Byzantine emperor of old, is the head of the Church in his dominion. The unction of confirmation is made to symbolize the royal priesthood of every believer. The monastic orders, though including many clergy, are not clerical institutions as the Latin orders have been since the thirteenth century. The community of Athos (q.v.) is a lay corporation with chaplains.
The administration of the churches as developed in the Byzantine Empire is most complicated, and involves, besides the regular clergy, an army of higher and lower ecclesiastical officers, from the first administrator of the church property (d ,afyas oixov6#os), the superintendent of the sacristy (d oKev*Aag), the chancellor or keeper of ecclesiastical archives (d xapro~'vXag), down to the cleaners of the lamps (oi Aaairadbpeoi), and the bearer of the images of saints (d ,Qaaray6pios). These half-clerical officers are divided into two groups, -one on the right, the other on the left: each is subdivided into three classes, and each class has again five persons. Leo Allatius and Heineccius enumerate fifteen officials of the right group, and even more of the left. But many of these offices have either ceased altogether, or retain only a nominal existence.
In worship and ritual the Eastern Church is much like the Roman Catholic, with the celebration of the sacrifice of the mass as its center, with an equal and even greater neglect of the sermon, 4. Worship and is addressed more to the senses and and imagination than to the intellect and the heart. It is strongly Oriental, unintelligibly symbolical and mystical, and excessively ritualistic. The Greeks reject organs, musical instruments, and sculpture, and make less use of the fine arts in 'their churches than the Roman Catholics; but they have even a more complicated system of ceremonies, with gorgeous display, semibarbaric pomp, and endless changes of sacerdotal dress, crossings, gestures, genuflexions, proetrations, washings, processions, which so absorb the attention of the senses, that there is little room left for the intellectual and spiritual worship. They use the liturgy of St. Chrysostom, which is an abridgment of that of St. Basil, yet very lengthy, and contains, with many old and venerable prayers (one of the finest is incorporated in the Anglican liturgy under the name of Chrysostom), later additions from different sources to an excess of liturgical refinement.
The most characteristic features of Greek wor|
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monastic system has not developed into great orders, as in the West. There are three classes of monks, the cenobites (KOCVO/3caKOl), who live together in a monastery ruled by an archimandrite who is often a bishop (apxcuavdpirw, iyo;,pevos); the anchorets (avaxmpvraf), who live in a cell apart from the other monks, or among the laity; and the ascetes (aowaf), or hermits. The monks usually follow the rule of St. Basil; some, the rule of St. Anthony. The bishops are taken from the monks. Important monasteries are at Jerusalem, Mount Athos (q.v.), Mount Sinai (where the celebrated Sinaitic manuscript of the Bible was kept for centuries), and Mar Saba near the Dead Sea. The Greek monks as a rule are more ignorant and superstitious than the Roman Catholic, and the same may be said of the clergy, many of whom are merely mechanical functionaries.
Religious life is supposed to originate in baptismal regeneration, and to be nourished chiefly by the sacraments. Prayer, fasting, and char-
s. 8°lig. itable deeds are the principal mani- ians Life. festations of piety. The observance of the Ten Commandments is strictly enjoined in all the catechisms. The Greeks and Russians are very religious in outward observ ances and devotions, but knave little of what Protes tants mean by subjective experiential piety, and personal direct communion of the soul with the Savior. The Greek Christians surpass their Mo hammedan neighbors in chastity, but are behind them in honesty. What St. Paul says of the Cre tans (|
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Concerning the extent of, he canon of the Scriptures, the Eastern Church is not quite consistent, and stands midway between the Roman and the Protestant view concerning the Jewish Apocrypha. The Septuagint is used, which includes the Apocrypha. The Orthodox Confession repeatedly quotes the Apocrypha as authority and the Synod of Jerusalem (1672) mentions several Apocryphal books (The Wisdom of Solomon, Judith, Tobit, the History of Bel and the Dragon, the History of Susanna, the Maccabees, and the Wisdom of Sirachj as parts of the Holy Scriptures. On the other hand, Metrophanes enumerates only twenty-two books of the Old Testament (according to the division of Josephus; see Canon Of Scripture, I, 4, § 3), and eleven books of the New Testament (counting fourteen Epistles of Paul, the two Epistles of Peter, and the three of John as each one book), and then speaks of the Jewish Apocrypha as not being received by the Church among the canonical and authentic books, and hence not to be used in proof of dogmas. The "Longer Catechism" of Phitaret likewise enumerates only twenty-two books of the Old Testament, but twenty-seven books of the New, and says that " the Wisdom of the Son of Sirach and certain other books " are ignored in the list of the books of the Old Testament, " because they do not exist in the Hebrew." The use of the Apocryphal books is justified because " they have been appointed by the Fathers to be read by proselytes who are pre paring for admission into the Church."
The circulation of the Scriptures among the laity is not encouraged, and certain portions, especially of the Old Testament, are declared to be unfit for general use. But the Greek Church has never prohibited the reading of the Bible in the vulgar tongue; and the Orthodox Church of Russia has always had a popular version of the Bible, first in the old Slavic, and now in modern Russian. The printing and circulating of the Bible in the Russian language and within the Orthodox Greek Church is under the exclusive control of the Holy Synod of St. Petersburg. See Bible Versions, XVI.
The Eastern Church has spread, through Russian influence, in Siberia, the Aleutian Islands, and wherever the civil and military power
10. leis- of the Czar has prepared the way; stone, but, apart from the aid of government, it has little or no missionary spirit, and is content to keep its own. Its greatest mission-work was the conversion of Russia; and this was effected, not so much by preaching as by the marriage of a Byzantine princess and the des potic order of the ruler Vladimir (see Russre). In the midst of the Mohammedan East the Greek populations remain like islands in the barren sea; and the Bedouin tribes have wandered for twelve centuries round the Greek convent of Mount Sinai, probably without one instance of conver sion to the creed of men whom they yet acknowl edge with almost religious veneration as beings from a higher world. (PHILIP SCHAFF) D. S. SCHAFF.IV. The Eastern Church is America: The Greek Orthodox Church in present United States territory dates from 1794, when nine Russian missionaries arrived at. St. Paul on Kadiak Island, Alaska, led by Archimandrite Joasaph Bogoloff. There the first Russian church and school in America were erected. In 1798 an episcopal see was founded and Joasaph was consecrated at Irkutsk in Siberia to be the first bishop of Kadiak, Kamchatka, and America. In 1840 four churches and eight chapels in Russian America were consolidated into an independent diocese and Ivan Veniaminof, who had labored in Alaska as missionary and priest with self-sacrificing zees sad marked success since 1823, was made bishop with the name of Innocent. He provided an Aleutian alphabet and grammar, translated the Gospels, a catechism, and -other religious literature into the Aleutian tongue and the language of the Koloshes, living in the vicinity of Sitka, built the cathedral in Sitka, and established a seminary there, where many of the priests and readers now officiating is Alaska have received their education. His influence with the natives was great. In 1855 he removed to Siberia and became archbishop of Kamchatka in 1858. He was made metropolitan of Moscow after the death of Philaret (1867), and died, greatly revered throughout Russia, in 1879. Yakof Netzvetof, a halfbreed priest, translated Veniatninof's version of the Gospels and catechism into the Atkha language. After the cession of Russian America to the United States, the bishop of Alaska undertook the oversight of all Slav Orthodox communities in the country, and in 1872 under Bishop John, the episcopal residence was transferred from Sitka to San Francisco. After the death of Bishop Nestor, who was drowned while traveling in performance of his episcopal duties in 1882, the mission of the Russian Church was governed by the ecclesiastical Consistory of San Francisco until 1888, when Bishop Vladimir arrived from Russia. His successors have been Nicholas (189-198), Tikhon (1898-1907), and the present Archbishop Platon.
The increase of Greek Orthodox communities in the United States has been particularly great since 1888 owing to the immigration of Austrian Slavonisne. There are at present 152 churches and chapels in the United Staten, Alaska, and Canada under the jurisdiction of the Synod of Russia, with one archbishop (since 1905) residing in New York, two bishops--one for Alaska residing at Sitka, the other (since 1904) for Orthodox Syrians residing in Brooklyn,-and an administrator for the Servians. There are seventy-five priests, a seminary at Minneapolis, and 46,000 registered parishioners. An official organ is published in New York in Russian and English. A religious paper formerly published in Chicago in Servian has been discontinued. The Russian cathedral in New York City was dedicated in 1902. In 1906 Archbishop Tikhon introduced Sunday evening services in English in 'thie church. Bishop Innocent of Alaska also favors the substitution of English for the Slavonic service for the Orthodox natives of his jurisdiction.
Orthodox congregations in the United States for those of Syrian nationality date from 1895, when the Russian Bishop Nicholas brought with
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The first Orthodox church for those of Greek nationality was founded in New Orleans, where many Greek merchants were engaged in the cotton trade. The second was founded in Chicago in 1872, when Greeks and Slavs united in calling a Greek priest from Russia. This church, after an interval, was reestablished in 1891, and in the same year another was opened in New York City, and a fourth in Boston with a priest of Syrian nationality. The Church of Lowell, Mass., a city having a large Greek population, dates from 1895. The total number of Orthodox churches for those of Greek descent, under the jurisdiction either of the Synod of Greece or of the Greek patriarch at Constantinople at present exceeds thirty. A religious paper is published in Greek at Milwaukee. In 1905 and again in 1907 a bill was introduced in the Greek parliament at Athens for the despatch of one of the prelates of Greece as a resident bishop for the Greeks in the United States. The bill, however, failed to pass, perhaps because the existence in the United States of bishops of the Greek Church owing allegiance to two different autonomous synods-t hose of Russia and Greece-would be anticanonical. It has been suggested that, besides the Russian and Syrian bishops, a Greek and a Servian bishop be appointed; an independent synod for the United States and Canada can then be formed and the bishops can elect their own metropolitan.
The total number of Greek Orthodox inhabitants of the United States, Alaska, and Canada is believed to exceed 300,000. The growth of the churches has been due in no small degree to a tendency on the part of Austrian and Hungarian Uniates who have emigrated to America to separate from Rome and return to the Eastern Orthodox confession. One reason for this tendency is the effort of the Roman Church to deprive the Uniates in America of their married priests.
Bibliography: The chief sources for the earlier history are the first seven councils, the writings of the Greek Fathers, especially of Athanseius, Chrysostom. John of Damascus, and Photius. For a conspectus of the literature of the Church, consult Krumbacher, Geschichte. On the general history consult: J. M, Neale, Hint, of the Holy Eastern Church, London, 1850; J. M. Heineccius, Abbildung der alters and neuen priechischen Kirche. 3 vols., Leipsic, 1711; M. Le Quien, Orions Chrixtianue, 3 viols., Paris, 1740; A. P. Stanley, Lectures on the Eastern Church, London, 1861, new issue, 1908; A. Leroy-Beaulieu, L'Empire des tears et les Busses, Vol. iii., La Religion, Paris, 1889; A. H. Hors Eighteen Centuries of the Orthodox Greek Church, London, 1899; idem, Student's Hist. of the Greek Church, ib. 1902; K. Beth, Die orientalische Christenheit der MittelmeerlSndtr, Berlin, 1902; J. Pargoire, L'todiae Byzantine. 527-Sb7. Paris, 1905; A. Forteacue, The Orthodox Eastern Church, London, 1905 (by a Roman Catholic); F. G. Cole, Mother of AU Churches; a brief and comyrehenaive Handbook of the Holy Eastern Orthodox Church,
64ib. 1908; the histories of the Councils by Harduin, Manei, and Hefele; the Church Histories of Hergenröther-Kirsch, Funk. Hefele-KntiPPfier, and K. MOller.
On the great schism and the attempts to heal it coneult: G. B. Howard, The Schism between as Oriental and Western Churches, London, 1892; Leo Allatius, De eccleeim occadentalia et orientalia perpetua conaenaione. Cologne, 1848: C. Will, Acts et aeripta . . de controvers%ia ucleaiw Groom et Latina, Marburg, 1881; A. Pichler, Geschichte der kirchlirhen TrennurW awischen dem Oraent urul Occident. 2 vols., Munich, 1864-6b: J. Hergenröther, Photius, 3 vols., Regensburg, 1887-69; R. Baxmann. Die Politile der Päpste, 2 vols., Elberfeld, 1888-89; L. Duchesne, Autonomea etiquusa: 4pliaea aEpmrEea, Paris. 1898; Eng. transl., Churches Separated from Rome, New York, 1908; L. Brehier, Le Schisms oriental du xi. aQcTe, ib. 1899; W. Norden, Das PaPattum and Byzanz, Berlin, 1903.
For the formalized eymbolica of the Church consult: Schaff, Creeds, vols. i.-ii.; E. J. Kimmel, Monuments fidero eccleaice orientadis, 2 vols., Jena, 1850; J. B. Pitra, Juria eccleaiaeticfi Gro:corum historia et monuments, 2 vols., Rome, 1864--68; w. Gala, Symlwlik der priech4achan Kirche, Berlin, 1872 ; F. Kattenbueeh, Lehrbuch der verpdeichenden Confeeaionakunde, vol. i., Freiburg, 1892 ; E. F. K. Müller, Symbodik, pp. 195-242, Leipsic, 1898; N. Milan, Das Kirchenrecht der marpealandischen Kirche, Zara, 1897; Orthodox Confession of the Eastern Church, Erg. transl. by P. Lodvill, London, 1898 ; Acts end Decrees of the Synod of Jeruaadem, . . 16796, Eng. tranal, by J. N. W. B. Robertson, London, 1899; F. Loofs, Symbolik, i. 2, pp. 109-189, Tübingen, 1902 ; J. Michalceacu, Die Bekenntniaae und die wichtdgaten Glaubenazeupniaae der priahiachorientalischen Kirche, Leipsic, 1904 (contains the statements of the first seven councils, and the confessions of Gennadius, Mogilas, Dositheus etc.). The Longer Catechism of Philaret, issued by authority of the Holy Synod of St. Petersburg, 1839, is used in the churches and schools of the Russian empire, and is the best modern exposition of the doctrine of the Eastern Church.
On the liturgies consult: H. A. Daniel, Codex diturpicus ecclea'em univeraalis, vol. iv., Leipsic, 1853; J. Goar, EuchoZopaum, give rituals Greecum, Paris, 1847; E. Renaudot, Liturgiarum orientalium colleeEio, 2 vols., Pane, 1718, Eng. transl., Collection of the Principal Liturgies .
Used by the Greeks . . . of the Oriental Church, Dublin, 1822; J. King, Rites and Ceremonies of the Greek Church in Russia, London, 1872 ; The Offices of the Oriental Church, with Historical Introduction, ed. N. Bjerring, New York, 1884; Synopsis, or Spiritual Collection of the Daily Prayers, Liturgy, . . . of !he Greek Orthodox Church of the East, travel, and ed. Katherine Lady Lechmere, London (1890 ); C. E. Hammond, Liturgies Eastern and Western, ed. F. E. Brightman, vol. i., Oxford, 1896; A. Btaerk, Der Taufritua in der praechisch-ruaaischen Kirrhe, Freiburg, 1903.
On the more modern history and that of the different branches mush material is found in the Revue de l'orient chrMen, vols., i. sqq., 1898 sqq.; in Echoa d'oraerat, vols. i.-vi.; and in the Revue internationade de UeSologie, vols. iii.iv.. Bern, 1895 -98. Consult further: J. J. I. von Döllinger. Ruche and Kircheu, pp. 158 sqq., Munich, 1881 ; Eng. transl., The Church and the Churches, London, 1882 ; idem, Ueber die Wfedereinigung der chriaUichen Kirchen, ib. 1888; L. Boiaeard, L'kgdias de Ruesie, 2 vols., Paris, 1887; A. d'Avril, La Bulparie chrétienne, Paris, 1892; idem, Les >;pdiaea autonomes et autorkphalea ib. 1895; idem, La Serbie chrStientte, ib. 1897; H. Gelzer, Gefbtliches and WelUichea aus dam titrkischen orient, Leipsic, 1900; O. HObner, S tatiatische TabeUe aUer Larder, Frankfort, 1901: D. Kyriakos, Geschichte der orienfalischen Kirchen, 1/,68-1898, Leipsic, 1902; M. G. Dampier, Hist. of the Orthodox Church in Austria-Hungary, London, 1905. Material of value will be found also in D. M. Wallaoe, Russia, New York, 1905.
Special topics are treated in: A. de f3tourdaa, ConaidSrationa cur la doctrine et Z'eaprit de Z'kplisa orthodoxe, Paris, 1816; K. P. Pobedonoezew, S treiEfrapen der Gegenwart, Berlin, 1897 : K. Boll, Enthusiarmua and Bung, walt beim priechischen MdnrhNum, Leipsic. 1898: P. Meyer, Die theologische Litleratur der priech%arhen Kirche im IB. Jahrhundert, ib. 1899; A. Sohmidtke, D ae Kdoaterdand des Athos, ib. 1903; B. Pick, Hymns sad Poetry of the Eastern Churh, New York, 1908.
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