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175 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Saint-Maur saints that he could accomplish his intended social renova tion through an alliance of science and industry. With this end in view, he traveled in Germany and England, but found nothing to reward his pains. By this time he had lost his property. He now wrote, among other works, Lettres d'un habitant de Gen~ve d ass cantemporains (1802); Introduction aux trth vaux scientifiques du dixneuvi,6ne si&le (2 vols., 1808); De la reorganisation de la snci&k europ4enne (1814); and L'Industrie, ou discussions politiquea, morales et philosophiques (1817). His appeals for financial aid to scholars, bankers, and Napoleon himself were in vain. Cuvier alone encouraged him, while Lafitte and Ternaux helped defray the ex pense of publishing his writings. All his efforts to attract the attention of the public were equally fruitless, even his daring Le Politique, l'organisateur, syst&me industrial des Bourbons et des Stuarts (1820). In despair he was about to commit suicide, but was prevented from so doing. Henceforth his fortunes were better, and with the help of his devoted adherent, Olinde Rodrigues, he published his Cat& chi8me politique (1823-24) and Nouveau christian isme (1825; Eng. transL, New Christianity, Lon don, 1834). In St. Simon's ideal society industry was to rule all. By " industry," however, he understood all labor, scientific as well as manual, so that among the working classes scholars and artists were to con stitute the aristocracy. While recognising the power of the medieval Church as a factor of civil ization, however, he failed to understand the basal doctrines of Christianity, holding that the princi ple of Christ and the apostles afforded " the quickest possible amelioration of material conditions among the poorer classes." He was equally blind to the course of history, maintaining that the gradual changes in doctrine, dogma, and mode of thought were the results of capricious interference on the part of individuals. The teachings of St. Simon were propagated by his followers, the St. Simonists, who included Rod rigues, Auguste Comte (see POSITIVISM), Bazard, and Enfantin. Their place of meeting was closed by the government because of their radicalism, and Enfantin established at M6nilmontant, which was then a suburb of Paris, a sort of monastery, where he, as " p6re suprAme," ruled a community in mot ley. But it was closed for offenses against morality, and Enfantin and his colleague, Michel Chevalier, were sentenced to a year's imprisonment, thus breaking the spirit of the entire movement. His works have been collected in (Euvres de Saint-Simon et d'Enfantin (47 vols., Paris, 1865r78), to which a life is prefixed. (C. PFENDER.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: F, w. Carowe, Der Saint-Simoniamua and die heutipe Jranz6aische Philosophic, Leipeic. 1831, L. Stein, Der Sozialiamua and Kommuniamua des heutipen Frattk reich, ib. 1842; C. Des Guerrois.tudea littkrairea d bia praphiquea,Paris, 1856; N. G. Hubbard, Saint-Simon, as vie, sea travaux, ib. 1857; Marie Recount, iZ&urrection du Pyre Enfantin. Quelquea Zumiirea our la doctrine de 3aint Simon, ib. 1858; w. R. L. Reybaud.tudea our lea r&rma taura contemporaina,ib. 1864; A. J. Booth, Saint Simon, and Saint Simaniam, London, 1&71; P. Janet. Saint Siman et le Saint-Si»wa%ame, Paris, 1878; O. Warschauer, Saint-Simon and den Saint-Simoni am us. Leipaic, 1892; G. Weil, Un Prkuraeur du sociadiame, Saint-Simon d son

sours, Paris, 1894; idem, L'-0cole saint-aimonieane, son hiat., son influence juaq'd nos joura, ib. 1896: P, weiaengruen, Die sozaatvriaaenachuJtlichen Ideen Saint-3imona, Basel, 1895; $. Charlety, Hroat. du Saint-3imoniame (1886- 188.¢), Paris. 1896; L. Paoli, Le Saint-Simoniame en Italie, ib. 1898; La Grande Enebclopbalie, vol. axiz., ib. 1901; F. Muckle. Saint-Simon and die 6korwmiacha Geachichtatheorie, Jena, 1906.

SAINTS, VENERATION OF: In accordance with Old-Testament usage (e.g., Dan, vii. 18 sqq.) the name " saints " (Gk. hagioi, Lat., sartcti) is applied in the New Testament to the members of the Christian community, and especially to those dwelling in Jerusalem. This use occurs as late as Hippolytus. At an early time attention was directed to individuals who by deeds and lives of extraordinary piety seemed to reveal the presence of the Spirit in exceptional fulness. Naturally this character was ascribed to those whose lives were

Before crowned with the glory of martyrdom, Constantine. a view definitely expressed for the first time in the account rendered by the community at Smyrna of the death of Polycarp (about 155). The reproach advanced by the Jews that the Christians of Smyrna seemed desirous of adoring Polycarp in place of Christ caused the com munity to define their attitude toward the martyrs whom they declared they " did not worship as they did Christ the son of God, but regarded them with fond affection as witnesses and imitators of the Lord." Yet Lucian bears testimony to the rever ence with which the confessors were regarded even in their lifetime. Between them, as representatives of the highest ideals of Christian saintliness, and the officials of the Church a certain measure of rivalry prevailed; on the theory that their superabundant merit might atone for the failings of others, they came to exercise to a certain extent the power of the keys.

With the conversion of Constantine and the cessation of persecution in the State the early confessors together with the prophets and apostles attained an unprecedented authority,

Rise of and names of hitherto local vogue bathe Cultus. gan to receive the veneration of the entire Church. Through the veneration of saints heathenism made its way into the Church which had supplanted it. Pagan worship of the dead became Christian martyrolatry, and the birthday feasts of the martyrs were but modifications of the banquets signalizing the pagan parerttalia (V. Schultze, Geschichte des Untergartys des griechiachrromischen Heidenthums, ii. 351-353, Jena, 1892). Aphrodite became the source of legends connected with the names of Pelagia, Maria, Marina, Margaret, Anthusa, and Eugenia, and during the last years of an expiring paganism marked by the wide-spread worship of female divinities greater emphasis came to be laid on the worship of the " Mother of God." With the gods came also the heroes; the hymn to the martyr was but a substitute for the hymn to the hero, the translation of one was the deification of the other, and the pagan statue was replaced by the Christian relic, in the adoration of which such enlightened spirits as Gregory of Nyssa engaged. The host of saints, increased by th<; accession of a new category, that of