first-named gave new form to the services by his systematic use of Sequences (q.v.), besides being, according to later tradition, the author of the antiphon Media vita, and also wrote the Gesta Karoli Magni (ed. MGH, Script., ii., 1829, pp. 726-763); Tuotilo was distinguished as artist; and Solomon, like many of his monks, was conspicuous as a poet. With the death of Solomon, however, the state of the monastery changed, its steady progress being hindered by the indifference of the secular rulers, the frequent change of abbots and their inferior degree of ability, the invasion of the Hungarians in 926, the fire of 937, and the Saracen inroads. Nevertheless, in the tenth and early eleventh centuries the monastery could again number first-class men, especially Dean Ekkehard (d. 973) and his four nephews. The first-named was not only a distinguished economist, but also the author of the Waltharius manufortis; and among the pupils of his famous nephew Notker Labeo (see NOT%ER, 4) was Ekkehard IV. (d. about 1060), the author of the Liber benedictionum and a busy glossator and poet, as well as one of those who continued Ratpert's Cases Sancti Galli. Besides history and literature, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine were cultivated at St. Gall by Notker Medicus (see NOT$L''R, 2). A reminiscence of the Irish origin of the monastery, moreover, may perhaps be traced in its cultivation of calligraphy and music. Waldo, who resigned the abbacy of St. Gall for that of Reichenau in 784, was remarkable for his skill in calligraphy, and the miniatures and the drawings of the Irish manuscripts of St. Gall clearly show Celtic coloring and ornamentation. These were, however, importations and exercised only a secondary influence, but when Grimald became abbot, he initiated a revival both of calligraphy and miniature painting which reached its acme in the Carolingian style and lasted far into the dynasty of the Ottos.

In 1034 St. Gall was placed by Conrad II. under the Cluniac reform, but though the monks firmly resisted the innovation, the unsuccessful attempt being terminated by the voluntary

importance, and simultaneously with the rise of Rudolph of Hapsburg, it constituted itself an imperial city, soon even attempting to effect a confederation of the Swabian cities. The closing centuries of the Middle Ages, moreover, brought the monastery of St. Gall into conflict with the Swiss confederation; and though the antithesis came to an end on the incorporation of the spiritual principality of St. Gall, as part of the German Empire, into the confederation, the abbots still maintained connection with the empire and, when they judged it to their advantage, assumed a peculiar intermediate position. Under Swiss protection the Appenzell vassals of St. Gall threw off their allegiance, but, on the other hand, the uprising of the shepherds, which for a time threatened the very existence of the monastery, was suppressed in 1408. Such was the northeastern spread of the influence of the confederation, however, that in 1451 Abbot Caspar formed an alliance with the two cities of Zurich and Lucerne, and the two cantons of Schwyz and Glarus, the city of St. Gall, which had now become entirely independent, joining this league three years later. Henceforth abbey and city, like Appenzell, which entered their confederacy in 1452, took an active part in Swiss affairs, as in the struggles against Charles the Bold, Maximilian, and the Swabian League.

The first abbot of St. Gall not of noble birth, Ulrich Rosch (1463-91), strove indefatigably to unite all the prerogatives and possessions of his monastery, and in 1469 purchased the suzerainty of the Toggenburg from the heirs of the extinct house which had held it. He thus came into

4. The conflict with the city of St. Gall and Reforma- with Appenzell, and though circumtion. stances so favored him that he was able to crush them, a generation after his death the city seemed on the point of triumphing over the abbey. Zwingli, born in the Toggenburg, manifested special hatred of the monastery of St. Gall, and in this he was abetted by the burgomaster of the city of St. Gall, Joachim von Watt (q.v.), an enthusiastic advocate of the new doctrines. In 1529 the cloisters, deserted by the monks, were seized by the city, and Protestantism worked its will in the abbey church; while from the archives of the monastery were taken the materials which enabled Watt (Vadianus) to write his Grossere Chronik der Aebte and Kleinere Chronik der Aebte (ed. E. Gbtzinger, St. Gall, 1875-77). The death of Zwingli and the end of the second Cappel war in 1531 transformed the situation, and in the following year the new abbot, Diethelm Blaarer, reentered his abbey. The old faith was reembraced, except in the city of St. Gall and in the Toggenburg, and both Diethelm and his successors speedily, revived the spiritual and material preeminence of St. Gall. Joachim Opfer (1577-94) was a martyr to his devotion to the sufferers from pestilence; and Bernhard Miiller (15941630) and Pius Reher (1630-54) brought the discipline and administration of the abbey to such a point that St. Gall was justly placed at the head of the new Swiss Benedictine congregations, and lost territory was regained. Learning was revived in equal measure; the abbey had its own press after