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Sweden THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG 1"18

reformation, who introduced the new teachings to Gustavus Vasa, and was made secretary to the king,

1. The and counselor. For a short period, Reformation when the feudal and unionist policy (1520-1611). had reaped its reward in the Stockholm massacre in 1205, the whole country appeared to be crushed and lost; but the peasants of Dalecarlia arose under Gustavus Vasa to fight for national freedom. The Danish Christian II. had executed the former leaders, among them most of the bishops; in 1522 only two bishoprics were filled. The popular uprising resulted in the establishment of a national government, in 1523, in Strengnas, and the king, as the people's choice, was invested with purely personal authority. In every depart ment, however, the Roman Church, forming a state within a state, appeared as an obstacle, particularly on the economic side; for after the war Sweden was an impoverished, defenseless country, unless it could avail itself of the wealth of the churches and monas teries. The king at once recognized the value of the new teachings as a means to a popular national regeneration, the principle of which was to unite the whole population in the common obligation to rescue and defend their fatherland, and in the com mon responsibility for the execution of necessary measures and their consequences. The king was the accountable personification of this union; the entire people shared in his undertakings, and were therefore responsible to him as long as he maintained the defense and prosperity of the country. The religious life of the people formed no exception, and the king was obliged personally to conduct the whole reform, so far as it came within the interests of the State. It was Gustavus Vasa who decided on the manner of introducing the Reformation, as appeared at the decisive diet which he assembled at WesterAas (1527). He compelled the decision of the diet assisted by the nobility and the military party. By this decision, the Church was freed from Rome and the rule of canonical law; its possession were placed at the disposal of the king (except the parson ages), and the nobles were bound to the throne by the acquisition on their part of the church property. It was decreed that " the Word of God should be preached purely and plainly "; formally, religious freedom for Protestantism only was introduced. There was no loud demand for religious changes. In fact, however, Protestantism had to ensue as the successor of abolished Rome. All the estates sub scribed the resolutions, and in this manner the national popular government, through its king, maintained the right to watch over the develop ment of the Church. The inner work of the Refor mation meanwhile progressed slowly, guided by the wisdom and prudence of Olaus Petri, who in 1524 had been removed to Stockholm as preacher and secre tary for the city. In 1526 he translated Luther's " Prayer-book," the first Reformation publication in Sweden, and the same year gave the people a translation of the New Testament, which had the same influence on the language and culture of Swe den as Luther's translation of the Bible had in Germany. He also collaborated in the publication of the first hymnal. The Roman Catholics were lacking in able defenders. Brask, who at first set

up a vigorous opposition, had to flee after the Synod of Westeras and died in exile in 1538. When Gustavus Vasa supplied the vacated bishoprics by installing such men as were then available, consecration was performed by Petrus Magni, a monk of the order of St. Bridget, who had himself received episcopal consecration from the pope at Rome. Thus the so-called " Apostolic succession " was preserved. The latest writings of Olaus Petri, which were in accord with the decisions of the Synod of Oerebro (1529), in regard to outward religious forms, were the " Church Manual " (1529), the " Postil," the " Catechism " (1530), and the " Swedish Mass " (1531). Olaus Petri was aided by his brother, Laurentius, who became the first Protestant archbishop of Sweden, 1531. A Swedish translation of the whole Bible was given out by the brothers Petri in 1541, and new Reformation literature was spread abroad. Under ultra-reform influence, Gustavus attempted (1539-43) to do away with the office of bishop, to install " s uperattendenten " over the entire Swedish Church, and to establish a sort of presbyterian rule. Olaus Petri and Lorenz Andrea, on account of their opposition, were sentenced to death (1540), but were pardoned, though they did not regain their former influence (both died in 1552). The opposition of the people recalled the king to his former policy. A diet at Westeras discarded more Roman Catholic forms and usages, and a compilation of church laws, Vadstena artiklar (1553), drawn up probably by the archbishop, was the first attempt to make t:.e Church a purely Protestant organization. Eric XIV., successor of Gustavus, not being able to maintain the personal character of government, the Church slipped somewhat from royal control, and its administrative forces, particularly the archiepiscopate, increased greatly in importance. The great religious war of Europe now spread to Sweden. Calvinism sought to establish a firm footing (1560-68) ; and Calvin himself corresponded with Eric, and his followers presented to the king a formula of belief. This movement was opposed by Laurentius Petri, and the result was an internal development through which the Church became more narrowed to Evangelical Lutheranism. A result, as well as the last work of Laurentius (d. 1573), was the church order of 1571, which prevailed for a century. A Counter-Reformation was threatened by the fact that Catherine, wife of King John III., was a Roman Catholic. In 1574 the first Jesuit came to Sweden. John, who had been under the influence of the party of Melanchthon and the development of the English Reformation, sought a safe middle path. His " Red Book," a new order of the mass, was to reunite the Swedish Church with the old true Roman Catholic Church. The papal obstinacy to the compromise put an end to Roman influence in 1580; but the controversy concerning the Red Book and cryptopapacy constituted the baptismal fire of Lutheranism and produced a generation of stanch characters, so that upon John's death (1592) it was with the support of Duke Charles, son of Gustavus I., completely triumphant. The synod called by Duke Charles, now regent, in Upsala (1593) was the most important in the history of the Swedish Lutheran Church. The Red Book was prohibited and all