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cathedral chapters in the episcopal sees was begun; about the year 1200 Upsala had regular canons. This collegiate organization served as a basis for the later development of state law. During the papacy of Innocent III., the king appealed for coronation to the Church. While Germany and Denmark were making conquests in Livonia, a Swedish crusade set out for Esthonia. The long struggle for the supremacy over the Baltic now began. The reign of Eric III. (1222-50), the last of the old dynasty, was the most important period in the organization of the Church, and it would seem as if anarchy had been the best soil for its development. The prelates advanced as the most powerful figures of the regency and of the incipient institution of councils. Bishop Bengt of Skara, a man of great political foresight, visited Rome in 1220-21, and he established the chapter at Skara, probably the first secular chapter in Sweden. Bishop Bengt of Linktiping, his contemporary, established a cathedral chapter in 1232, and began the erection of a magnificent cathedral in Linkoping. The chapter at Abo was founded at this time. Archbishop Jarler (1236-55) restored as a secular chapter the defunct chapter at Upsala, and introduced the mendicant orders. After 1230 monastic life became a chief factor in the Swedish Church; the rising cities from the beginning of the twelfth century were closely identified with its interests. The Franciscans came to Wisby in 1233, and went from thence to various towns in 1240, and to Upsala in 1247. The Dominicans, of more importance, first established themselves firmly in Sigtuna, where their cloister became one of the most famous in Sweden, and then founded a scarcely less important one in Skennige. Many others were built in various towns. A new crusade to Finland was undertaken in 1249. This had long been a pet scheme of Gregory IX. to counteract the Palestinian politics of Frederick II. At its head was the most powerful man in the country, the king's jarl, Birger, of the old race of the Folkungar. Tavastland was now converted. King Eric on the demand of Innocent IV. gave the church legal jurisdiction over certain offenses of the laity, and exempted cathedral property from taxation. The organization of the lower clergy and the episcopal divisions were confirmed. And now Innocent IV., in accordance with his greater political schemes, sent the cardinal-bishop, Wilhelm of Sabina, who understood northern conditions, invested with great authority as cardinal-legate. He knew how to turn the internal troubles to the benefit of the Church. At a provincial synod at Skennige (1248), it was decreed that the clergy be obligated to celibacy; and that the bishops procure and study the last collection of decretals. Innocent IV. supplemented the same by an ordinance that the bishops should be chosen by the cathedral chapter, and not, as heretofore, by popular vote and the sanction of the king. This was the corner-stone of the Roman Catholic edifice. In the next half-century, celibacy was very gradually established and the canonical choice of bishops simultaneous with the universal organization of cathedral chapters. The seat of the archbishopric was transferred from Old-Upsala to Upsala in 1270, and its incumbent presided over the great

national assemblies. Political events shaped themselves in the interest of the Church. The Folkungar Magnus LadulAs overthrew his brother, Waldemar, in 1275; but in return for the assistance of the Church in his coronation had to grant almost all the demands made by Gregory X. in a decretal to Sweden in 1274. By this means, all church property, even the diocesan churches, became exempt from taxation and the legal authority of the Church was extended. The conditions by which the king was bound were ratified at the Synod of Telje, 1277, which was the most important in the history of the Swedish Church, whose independent position in the kingdom was now complete. Under the protection of Magnus the mendicant orders took on new life and many new cloisters were built, the most important of which were the Franciscan monastery at Riddarholm in Stockholm in 1270, and the monastery of the Poor Clares at the Norrmalm in Stockholm in 1289. The Franciscans became the most influential order; mendicant monks frequently became bishops. Church instruction, carried on principally by the Dominicans in Skennige, began to improve. Swedes began to study diligently in Paris, where they had a house, 1285. Collections of books were taken to Sweden, and the first Swedish writer of any importance was Petrus de Dacia, a Dominican lector in Skennige (d. 1288). Educated at Cologne he studied under Thomas Aquinas, and was of a deep mystical nature. His language may be taken as a sample of the speech of the thirteenth century. Mysticism in Sweden began with him. In every department the Church advanced under royal promotion, which was reciprocally requited; yet the alliance bore the seed of future conflict. Progress attained to less power than in the neighboring lands. There was a tenacious adherence to the old Germanic legal point of view, retarding canonical innovation. In important questions the Church was forced to yield to King Magnus, as in the case of the long-desired canonical testament law; and thus a definite limit was set to the economic extension of the power of the Church. The Swedes maintained their ancient popular right of appointment to the lower ecclesiastical offices in a manner almost unparalleled in church history. A fruit of the pblitical awakening was the establishment of the Swedish organic law which relatively culminated in the granting of the code of 1300. In ecclesiastical specifications this was an apparent compromise with canon law, but in general the basic Swedish character and standpoint were maintained. The last crusade (1290) effected the conversion of Karelia and occasioned the beginning of the long Russian wars. To the climax of outer and inner organization was lacking only release from the primacy of Lund; but this came practically with the close of the thirteenth century when Nils Allesson, archbishop of Upsala, received the pallium.

The dominant period of the Church (1305-1448) opens with the regent administration of Marshal Torgils Knutsson who represented in Sweden the beginning of political reaction against the preponderance of the Church, which at that time was felt all over Europe, and found its principal representative in Philip the Fair. Greater restrictions