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Stoicism THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG IOQ Stole virtue, not in pleasure. This was the voice of that natm'e, that rational ideal of giving sovereignty to God in man, to that precept which will justify conduct before the universal reason, and thus make it by implication obligatory on all.* Thus the Stoics elevated Socrates to a dominating position. Be tween virtue and moral wrong there are no inter mediate steps or gradations. Nor are there any de grees of difference or elevation within the category of virtue or of vice. Virtue, unless it appears in ac tion, is of no value. What men mainly cherish, the boons of health, wealth, honor, power, pleasure, must not be the objects of action, for they are neither good nor bad in themselves, but are intermediate or indifferent (adiaphora). Stoics thus took a distinctly spiritual ground, and a vigorous " contempt for the world " can not be denied to some members of the school. At the same time everything, at bottom, is centered in the sub ject, and suicide is commended as a termination of trouble or as preservation of freedom. Cato, the opponent of Cxsar, and afterward, under the em perors, Pxtus Thrasea, Seneca (q.v.), Lucan, Cor nutus, and his pupil the poet Persius, Helvidius Priscus, and Epictetus were notable adherents of this school, which really made great demands on its followers, and gained from the general body of their various contemporaries a large measure of respect being by far the most virile form of thought which arose among the ancients. The Antonine emperors, whose creed Stoicism was, did much for the improve ment of slavery, but Marcus also directed a perse cution of the Christians. See NATURAL LAw. E. G. SIHL&IL. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are Diogenea Laertius, book vii., Eng. transls. were published, London, 1888, 1696, and in Bohn's Library, 1853; Plutarch, from his Opera, bested., ed. T. Doehner and others, 3 vole., Paris, 1846-55, may be named De Stoicorum repugnantiis, De Placitis philoso phorum; Cicero, De nature deorum, Eng. trans]., London, 1896, De fenibus, Eng. transl., ib. 1390; Epietetus, Works (Erg. transl.), new ed.. Boston, 1891; idexn, Discourses, 2 vole., London, 1897 (a fine ed., published by Humph reys), other translations are issued by Dent, London, 1899, and by Bell, ib. 1903; Marcus Aurelius, Golden Book, ed. W. H. D. Rouse, London, 1900 (another transl., 1906); idem, Meditations, Edinburgh, 1904 (a fine edition), Lon don, 1905 (in Standard Library), with title Marcus Aure- ~i lies to Himself, transl. and introductions by G. H. Rendall, London and New York, 1901; idem, Thoughts, London, 1890, with introduction by J. L. Spalding, London and New York, 1900; Seneca, Minor Dialogues, London, 1886; idem, Morals, ib. 1888; idem, On Benefits, ib. 1887; idem, Tranquillity of Mind and Providence, New York, 1900.

The subject is discussed in the works on the history of philosophy by H. Ritter, 4 vole., Oxford, 1836 i6; J. E. Erdmann, New York, 1893; H. Ritter and L. Preller 8th ed., by E. Wellmann, Goths, 1898. Consult further: 117. W. Capes, Stoicism, London, 1880; E. Zeller, Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics, London, 1880; D. Tiedemann, .SJ~tem der stoischen Philosophie, 3 vole., Leipsie, 1776; A. Grant, The Ancient Stoics, Oxford, 1858; M. Arnold Marcus Aurelius, in his Essays in Criticism, series 1, London, 1865; F, 'May Holland, Reign of the Stoics, New York, 1879; G. P. Weygoldt, Die Philosophie der Stoa nach ihrem Wesen and ihren Schicksalen, Leipsic, 1883; T. Jordan, Stoic Moralists in the First Two Centuries, Dublin, 1884; H. de Stein, Die Pspcholopie der Stoa, 2 vole., Berlin, 1886-88; J. Favre, La Morale slo'tcienne, Paris, 1888; C. H. Herford, The Stoics as Teachers, Cambridge, 1889; F. W. Farrar, Seekers after God, new ed., London and New York, 1891; A. C. Pearson. in his Frap-

* oQa \6yog a;pei vo,ew (Diogenea Laertius, vii. 108) is essentially as sound as Kent's " categorical imperative."

menta of Zero and Cleanthea. Cambridge, 1891; T. W. Rolleston, The Teaching o JEpietetua. London. 1891; J. B. Lightfoot, St. Paul and Seneca, in his Dissertations on the Apostolic Ape, London, 1892; A. Sehmekel, Dae.Phs Zosophie der miltleren S toa, Berlin, 1892; J. B. Brown, Stoics and Saints, Glasgow, 1893; A. BonhSffer; Epactetoa and die Stoa, Stuttgart, 1890; idem, Die Ethdk des Stoikera Epiktet, ib. 1894; A. W. Bern, The Philosophy of Greece, London, 1898; A. Dymff, Die Etleik der alter Stoa, Berlin, 1898; T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, 3 vole., London, 1901-05; A. P. Ball, Satire-of Seneca on the Apo theosis of Claudius: a Study, New York, 1902; C. H. S. Davis, Greek and Roman Stoicism, Boston, 1903; E. Reran, Marcus Aurelius, recent issue, London, 1903; E. A. Abbott, Silanus the Christian, London, 1906 (a historical novel, but valuable); L. Alston, Stoic and Christian in the Second Century, London, 1906; W. H. D. Rouse, Words of the Ancient Wise, London, 1908 (selections from Epictetua and Marcus Aurelius); W. L. Davidson. The Stoic Creed, Edinburgh, 1907; St. George Stock, Stoicism (in Philosophies. Ancient and Modern). Edinburgh, 1908, New York, 1909; T. Zielinski, Cicero dm Wandel der Jahrhunderte, Leipsie, 1908; F. W. Bussell, Marcus Aurelius and the Later Stoics, Edinburgh, 1909; R. D. Hicks, Stoic and Epicurean, London and New York, 1910; E. V. Arnold , Roman Stoicism, London, 1911; and the literature under EYICTETUB, Eieaovs AonELIUa ANTONINUa, and SENECA.

STOKES, GEORGE THOMAS: Irish ecclesiastical historian; b. at Athlone (70 m. w. of Dublin), Ireland, Dec. 28, 1843; d. in Dublin Mar. 24, 1898. He studied at Galway grammar-school and at Queens College, Galway; was graduated from Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1864; M.A., 1871; B.D., 1881; and D.D., 1886); was vicar of All Saints, Newtown Pal°k, Dublin, 1868-98; became assistant to the regius professor of divinity, 1880, and professor of ecclesiastical history in the University of Dublin, 1883; librarian of St. Patrick's Library, Dublin, 1887; and prebend and canon of St. Andrew, 1893. He published Ireland and the Celtic Church. A History of Ireland from St. Patrick to the English Conquest in 1172 (London, 1886); a commentary on the Acts, 2 vole., in The Expositor's Bible (1888); Ireland arid the Anglo-Norman Church. A History of Ireland and Irish Christianity from the AngloNorwnan Conquest to the Dawn of the Reformation (12189); Dudley Loftus. A Dublin Antiquary of the seventeenth Century (Dublin, 1890); The Island Monasteries of Wales and Ireland (1891); St. Fechin of Fone, arid his ?Monastery (1892); Greek in Gaul arid Western. Europe doom to A.D. 700. The Krtowledge of Greek in Ireland between A.D. 600 and 900 . (1892); Calendar of the Tiber Niger Alani (1893); and, in collaboration with C. I3. H. Wright, The Writings of St. Patrick; . . . a . . . Translation, . . . with Notes (1887).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: DNB, Supplement iii. 36162; Atheno:um, Apr. 2, 1898.

STOLBERG, FRIEDRICH LEOPOLD, COUNT: German author and convert to the Roman Catholic faith; b. at Bramstedt (23 m. n. of Hamburg) Nov. 7, 1750; d. on the estate of Sondermiililen near Osnabruck (65 m. s.s.w. of Bremen) Dec. 5, 1819. After the removal of his family to Copenhagen, he was educated there, together with his brother Christian, two years older than himself. Klapstock, a friend of the family, exercised a deep influence upon the two boys. They studied at Halls in 1770-71, and at Gottingen in 1772-73. In Gottingen they became a part of the well-known " Hainbund,"