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in England, the wage-earners regarded themselves as betrayed, and there resulted a movement known as Chartism, which demanded universal manhood suffrage. In 1848 the excitement became acute, and the cause was espoused by certain philanthropists, terming themselves Christian Socialists, among whom Frederick Denison Maurice, Charles Kingsley (qq.v.), and Ludlow were the leaders. They encouraged the wage-earners to form cooperative associations, the value of which approved itself widely; and the movement, merging with that of cooperation, disappeared from public view (see CmusmAN SOCIALIsM). The pioneer in France was Saint Simon (q.v.), whose writings founded socialism on the teachings of Christ, stripped of traditional additions. His noble aim was defeated by the sensual mysticism of his followers. Fourier advocated communities of 1,800 persons, living in a great building a community life with free affinity instead of marriage. Experiments in France and America failed. Louis Blanc favored workshops under State rules, with superintendents elected by the operatives, and equal wages for all. The experiments by the provisional government of 1848, though failures, were not determinative of the value of the scheme. Proudhon opposed the immorality of the earlier socialists and advocated equality of wages and the confiscation of private property. His famous saying derived from De Warville, " Proprietorship is robbery," underlies the present socialist demand for the confiscation of all property employed in production. He expected a high moral development in society, under which government should become unnecessary because of human excellence. The stern repression of the socialists by the government in June, 1848, and the apparent prosperity of the second empire put an end to socialistic agitation until the rise of the present republic. German socialism begins with Johann Karl Rodbertus (18051875), whom many regard as the founder of socalled scientific socialism. He based his doctrine on the assertion that labor is the source and measure of all value and demanded nationalization of land and capital for the purpose of abolishing the commercial crises which deprive men of work. He attacked the individualistic system as productive of such crises, and called for a gradual change without revolution.

S. The Second Period: As with Rodbertus, the activity of other distinguished socialists, overlapping the middle of the century, falls chiefly in the second period. Ferdinand Lassalle advocated a

new political party, devoted to the inGermany. terest of the wage-earner. He claimed that the wage-earners received a compensation sufficient to provide merely a bare existence, which statement has been called the " iron law of wages." He argued for productive cooperation by associations aided by State loans. Two names, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, are closely associated as the founders of the revolutionary school of so-called scientific socialism, which may be dated from the manifesto of the communist party in 1848. This was a somewhat incoherent defense of the abolition of private property, closing with an appeal to the socialists of all nations to

unite. In 1867 the masterpiece of Marx, Da. Kapital, set forth his economic theory of surplus value, which was virtually Lassalle's " iron law of wages," asserting that the wage-earner in industry received a bare subsistence and that the surplus of his product went to the capitalist. He advocated governmental ownership and control of land, capital, and all productive and distributive industry, remuneration of workers by certificates representing hours of labor, and payment for all workers regardless of quantity and quality solely according to the number of work-hours. Organized in 1862, the offspring of previous associations, the International Association of Working Men, better known as " The International," held world congresses until 1873. Beginning with the recommendation of cooperative societies, these bodies later demanded nationalization of the means of communication, mines, forests, and land, the abolition of rent, interest, profit, and all remuneration to capital. The International opposed itself to war, but lauded the communists of Paris in 1871 as martyrs to the cause of the wageearners. In the congress of 1872 the Russian anarchists aroused serious strife which resulted in the death of the organization in the following year. In 1889, however, and frequently since then, international congresses have been held, notably one in London in 1896, disturbed by anarchists, who were thereupon excluded. The socialist movement in Germany advanced in two parallel lines, the aim of the one being socialization through the state, and that of the other the establishment of a cooperative system independent of state interference and gradually absorbing all industry. By a fusing of existing parties in 1875 was formed the present Socialistic Working Men's Party, which aims to convert " private property in the means of production into social property," and to conduct all production and distribution under social control.

For some time succeeding the fall of the Paris commune French socialism was under a shadow,

and suffered from differences which . In were reconciled and ended in 1905 by France, the formation of a united party, de-

claring for the transformation " of the and Russia. capitalistic organization of society into

a collectivist or communal organization." In 1892 the socialists of Italy separated from anarchism, but have since suffered from dissension, and have shown their activity chiefly in municipal work, in strikes, and in copperation. After the wane of the Owen and the Christian socialist movements in England, though some Englishmen took part in the International, socialism evidently lost influence among the people. In 1884 two organizations came into existence, the Social Democratic Federation in politics and the Fabian Society in educational activity. The strength of the trade-unions and the native conservatism of the English workman have hindered the acceptance of socialistic principles. The great dock strike of 1888 aroused a new interest which issued in the organization of the Independent Labor Party. The socialistic vote in parliament presents a steadily increasing influence. In 1908 the conference of the labor party of Great Britain, formerly conserva-