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THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG Scholasticism Scholia
sents separation and theology as the purely practical religious knowledge of the way to God. Having the inviolable formulas of the Church and
3. Three the Aristotelian logic in common, the Types. two methods frequently coincide, in part or whole, in presenting the same doctrine. Doctrinal reconstruction is precluded for both by their presuppositions. Thus adher ence to the foundations and problems of Lom bard for centuries is self-evident. Original obser vations and judgments occur but do not dare to brave the ban of church doctrine and practise. More radical in antagonism to the system of Thomas was the work of Occam. The aim of this was to ex pose the irrationality of dogma and with an un sparing criticism to show on every hand the an titheses to the church tenets as thinkable. It was customary to make excursions in the light of the Potentia absoluta, how things might have been in the absence of reality; but in the sterile atmosphere of the day those possibilities soon dispersed and the church positivism remained. But historically considered this aspect of the matter was of the ut most significance. When confidence in single church doctrines was once attacked, the criticism of single dogma and doctrines became customary, and finally theology led quite barrenly to the consid eration of the ecclesiastical doctrines and ordinances as mere empirical realities. Not without enhan cing the natural element in church ordinances, this theology undertook the support of Pelagianism and the externalizing of grace in the institution of pen ance from an inner relationship of choice. The negative criticism of the materials of tradition and a rationalizing and naturalizing positivism within the limits of its power-these are the principles of nominalism. They are the distinguishing marks of the third type of scholastic theology. Following mainly the outline of Duns Scotus, it is distinguished from his system by the qualities characteristic of the mode of thought of the nominalistic theologians, namely, crassness of criticism, inner contempt of dogma, and the lack of a unified Christian philos ophy. The supreme tendency of the theology of the thirteenth century-to provide the new world in the act of self-realization with a self-consistent philoso- phy, which should render the kingdoms of the world subject to the pope and all secular 4. Surviving knowledge a pillar to the arch of churchas those old theologians had anticipated. The practical situation which had occasioned the enormou
labor of the thirteenth century continued. It i self-evident, then, that in the fourteenth cent Thomism on the one hand and Augustinianism o the other took their places beside nominalism. The Thomists desired to enforce the primacy of the Church in learning and life, and became the bitter- est foes of the Reformation; the Augustinians, no without being affected by nominalistic criticism, endeavored to rescue the primacy of religion ' criticism, 288life, and became the forerunners of the Reformation. A historical magnitude like scholasticism, lasting four centuries, was not without its permanent influence in philosophy and theology. Not only is this found in Roman Catholicism as already pointed out, but also in the influence of Duns upon Luther in favor of a practical religious doctrinal system setting forth the way of redemption as manifest in revelation. So also the influence of Thomas upon Melanchthon, who allowed philosophy as ancilla theologise to contribute the materials of natural knowledge to dogmatics. In principle, the older Protestant theology adhered to the rejection of scholasticism by the Reformation, and the Enlightenment (q.v.) was incapable of receiving a profound historical appreciation of scholasticism. This change did not occur until the revival of the historical sense by Romanticism (q.v.). From the time of F. C. Baur's great work on the Trinity, Protestant history of dogma has given more unbiased attention to scholasticism, especially after interest was stimulated by Albrecht Ritschl's inquiry into the persistence of scholastic thought within Protestantism. Yet no field presents so many unclaimed problems as the history of scholasticism. (R. SEEBER(3.)
B($LrodnAPAY: W. L. G. von Eberstein, Die naEUrliche Theolop6e der Scholast%ker, rtebat Zuantzen fiber die Freiheita- lehre and den Begri$' der Wahrheit 6ei denaelben. Leipsie. 1803; R. D. Hampden, The Scholastic Philosophy Con sidered in its Relation to Christian Theology. 2d ed., Lon don, 1837; G. O. Marbaah, Lehr6uch der Geschichte der Philosophic, Part 2. 1.eiPSic. 18381: 7C. Rousselot, etudes our la philosophic done le molten dge. Paris. 1840 1842; R. Hasse, Anselm von Canterbury, 2 parts. Leipsic, 1843, Eng. transl., London, 1850; A. Jourdain, Recherchea critiques our Cfige d i orip%ne des traductiona Wines d' Ariatote, 2d ed.. Paris. 1843; B. Haur6au. De la philo sophic acolaatique. 2 vols., ib. 1850; idem, Hiato%re de la philosophic acoiastique, ib. 1872-80; idem. Grigoire IX. et la philosophic d Atistote, ib. 1872; F. Morin, Dictaon naire de philosophic el de thiolop%e acolastiquea, 2 vole., ib. 1858; E. Plasemann, Die Sehule des heilipen Thomas van Aquino, 5 vole., Munster. 18572; H. D. KShler, Realasmua and Nom%naliamus in %hrem E%nJlusae auJ die dogmatiachen Syateme des Mittelalters. Goths. 1858; W. Kaulieh, Geachichte der acholestiachen Philosophic, part 1, Von Joh. Scotus Eripena his Abalard, Prague, 1883; A. Stoeekl, Geachichte der . Philosophic des Mittela2tera, 3 vo1s., Mains. 18648; idem, Doctrine philosophique e de S. Thomas d'Aquin, Paris, 1893; C. S. Bsrach, Zur Geachiehte des Nom%naliamus vor Roacell%n, Vienna, 1888; L. Figuier, Vies des savants illuatrea du moyen dge, sues d l'apprEciation eommaire de leura travnux, Paris, 1887; F. r D. Maurice, Mediceual Philosophy of the First Six Cen- h furies. new ed., London, 1870; 3i. Schneid, Die acholasti- ache L ehre von Materie and Form, Eichst>itt. 1873; J. Sehwertsehlllger, Die erate Entstehung der Organisrnen nach h der Philosophic des Alterthums and des Mittelaltera, ib. y 1873; J. Bach, Die Dopmenpeschichte des MittelalEera vom christologiachen Standpunkte, 2 parts, Vienna, 1873-75; A. Ebert, Allpemeine Geachichte der Literatur des Mittel- au alters %m Abendlande, 3 vole., Leipsie. 1874; M. Sehneid, Ariatotelea %n der Scholastik. Ein Beitrap zur Ceschichte der Philosophic %m Mitte7alter. Halle, 1875; J. H. Loewe, Der KampJ zurischen dem Tlealiamus and Nom%naliamua im 8 M%ttelaltcr. Prague, 1876; C. Werner, Der Entwicklunga- ~r pang der mittelalterlichen Psycholopie van Alcuin b%s A1- n 6ertus Magnus, Vienna, 1878; idem, Die Scholastik des aptiteren Mittelaltera, 4 vole.. ib. 1381-87; idem, Die e nominalisirende Psgcholopie der Scholastik des aptlteren C Mittelaltera, ib. 1832; N. Valois, Guillaume dAuverpne, sa vie M sea ouvrapea. Pares, 1&S0; F. X. Pfeifer, Harmoni- c ache Beziehungen zrcischen Scholastik and moderner Natur wrissenachaJt. Augsburg, 1881; W. J. Townsend, The Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages London, 1881: J. Bering- ln ton, Literary History of the Middle Ages, ed. W. Hazlitt,