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ject to the unity of the great objective plan. Though criticizing particular formulas and proofs, in substance and tendency Duns is at one with the old theology of the thirteenth century. His significance is therefore that alongside of the intellectualism of Thomas, the Augustinian voluntarism remained; that dialectic did not sweep out of existence the old problems of religious metaphysics; and that theology employed itself with realities and not merely formulas. Pelagian and disorganizing elements are not wanting, and continued powerfully in development. Although he strove for real things in theology, yet no one was as much responsible for the gradual deterioration of scholasticism into dialectic virtuosity, subtleties, and logomachy on the one hand, and a rigid positivism on the other. More remarkable is it that the last great protagonist of realism was the teacher of the man who disseminated nominalism in wide circles, William of Occam (q.v.). The increasing secularizing of the Church, the medieval traditionalism that became entangled in the chains of proof and forgot the substance, the rivalry of schools and orders anxious to uphold complete the doctrines of their masters, the critical tendency of Duns, using positivism as counterbalance and seal of certainty-all these contributed to reduce spirit to dulness and more and more to substitute the pursuit of formulas for that of knowledge.

IV. Decline of Scholasticism. 1. Divergent Schools of the Fourteenth Century: Two systems now prevailed in the pursuit of theology; the Thomistic and the Scotist. The scientific development proceeded along two lines: First, the Scotist emphasis upon the active principle in knowing as well as the direction of the knowing faculty upon

the particular, together with the in 1. Crass creasing complication, of the realities

The second line of development was that represented by the two schools, in contrast with the rationalism and positivism of the nominalists, which

in their way sought to connect with the mystical and Augustinian tendencies of the older theology. 2. The Aver-The first of these, first represented by

of Baconthorp (d. 1346), and Joannes de Jauduno (master at Paris after 1316), repudiated the Thomistic understanding of Aristotle and adhered to Averrhoes. Just as the things in the world known in themselves become fully realized by the light of the inteldectus agens, so the objects of faith presented in the Bible may be conceived by means of a " disposition " of faith whose character consists in taking the Scripture as divine truth. This is the light of faith that operates to make thought cleave to the objects of faith so firmly as to possess a real knowledge of them (Baconthorp). Joannes de Jauduno declared all the Averrhoistic doctrines, such as the eternity of the world and the unity of the intellect, as rationally necessary, and preserved the idea of revelation as a means to salvation just as his master had in a practical religious interest with the Koran. In like manner the Paduan school of the fifteenth century assigned to the Averrhoistic ideas a similar position to that which they occupied in the peripatetic philosophy from the thirteenth.

More important was the Schola Aegydiana or theology of the Augustinian hermits. Xgidius de Columna (q.v.) wrote a commentary to the first

3. The three books of the Sentences. Jacob Mgidian. Capocci (d. 1308) followed him, then

Augustinus Triumphus (q.v.), Gerhard of Siena, Prosper of Reggio, Simon Baringundus, and the German Heinrich von Freimar and Thomas of Strasburg (d. 1357). Xgidius considered in theology an affective " disposition " of knowledge which is akin to the speculative. God is not conceived " according to the mode of reason," but " according to the form of revelation." All sciences shall be subservient to theology, which, however, is not under the necessity of explaining its principles. Salvation is to be realized in life by " act of the will." The universal is in ipsa re as the natura rei, which is something different from the particular thing of sense; and as ante rem it subsists in God as eternal idea. Stress is laid upon the fact that God moves all creatures " to their activities " and that they are his " instruments and less than instruments." This natural operation of God is preliminary to the operation of grace. Preparation for the gratis gratum faciens is possible only as a divine calling and an inspiration of good reflections precedes. The sacraments, according to Thomas of Strasburg, are only means for the grace immediately wrought of God in the soul. Scotist and Thomistic elements mingle; on the whole the basis of the older theology is conserved without a thoroughgoing advance. An interesting and important advance was made by Gregory of Rimini (d. 1358), who regarded theology as an essentially practical science so far as it guides to eternal life, but containing also speculative principles, which it proves from Scripture. The principal authority for Gregory was Augustine; but it is remarkable that he professed nominalism and attempted to derive it from Augustine. Not " the lack of original right eousness " constitutes the nature of original sin, but