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types for the dogmatics of the Middle Ages. Such or, the juagtia onginalis and donum s uperadd'itum

(original righteousness and superadded i. Ales- grace); snderesis (rudiment of eOn-

Hales. gratis data (preparatory grace freely given in particular effects) and gratia gratum facie" (grace as an abiding principle of character); of meritum de congruo (merit from the proper use of nature), and meritum de condigno (merit on the basis of supernatural grace); of carentia justitiig originalis as culpa (guilt) and concupiscentia as Pcena (punishment), in the doctrine of original sin. Also, the distinction of attritio and contritio; as repentance from servile fear and moral penitence. Alexander knew how to seize upon the inmost springs of the religious life of his day, to set them forth in clear apt statement, and with a sure skill to make the new philosophical knowledge and dialectic method subservient to dogma. Although much indebted to Aristotle and citing him continuously, he did not belong to the Aristotelians, but remained an Augustinian Platonist. He held fast to the realism of ideas and for him knowing maintained the religious character of illumination by means of " eternal ideas." Combination with the forms of Aristotelian metaphysics and psychology did not always redound to clearness and consistency. The work received highest recognition when Pope Alexander IV., in 1256, ordered it to be completed (the conclusion consisting of the last three sacraments and eschatology, and, in the third part, the doctrine on ethics were wanting). According to Roger Bacon (q.v.), as a result of Alexander's influence, academic study was reversed in placing the sentences first and Biblical interpretation second. Alexander gave the Church a thorough orthodox system with which to meet the intellectual movement of the time; in it Christianity was digested in thought and presented by means of all the newly acquired philosophical materials and motives.

In the Oxford school of theology, Robert Grosseteste (q.v.) gave impulses to theology decisive for

Oxford thoroughgoing realist; but, as in the School. view of Anselm, the knowledge of the

universal realities must be appropriated in experience, which accounts also for his stress otherwise on scientific empiricism. Knowledge of nature he promoted together with mathematics, grammar, and practical philology. At one with this may have been his emphasis on the authority of the Bible for theology. Faith is essentially the " faith of those things which are believed by the authority of sacred Scripture." Faith in the truths of the Bible is redemptive. God is the will that works salvation, but good is realized only as it is done by human free will. The historical significance of this remarkable personage is in the noteworthy combination of empiricism with speculation-of interest in connection with the traditional authoritative conception and the religious consciousness. The influence of this combination which he inspired was the main reason for the tenacity with which the Franciscans held to the

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m i.Adv,_

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nd a stronger infusion of the system of Aristotle into theological discussion. This took place, in the first instance, through the Dominicans, Albert the Great (see ALBERTUS MearrQS) and Thomas Aquinas

(q.v.), his foremost pupil. Albert, in-

1· Albert , spiced with a consummate passion for the Great; knowledge, collected all that was poa-

not advance beyond reproduction. Aristotle formed his framework, and the packing in of much Augustinian-Platoniatic material naturally resulted in serious contradictions. To his world-philosophy were added the church dogmas which remained essentially unchanged, no matter how much Aristotelian material was introduced. Thomas, on the contrary, penetrating and clear in conception, equipped with a fresh insight into fundamentals, a great systematic talent, and a remarkable gift of presentation, was uniquely qualified to take in the Aristotelian philosophy as a whole, and, with a sure and skilful art, of incorporating all except the absolutely contradictory. Without relinquishing dogma at any point, he reestablished the same on the new philosophy like superstructure on foundation. The entire Greek position with regard to the soul is accepted. The supreme object of man is to know. Theology is a speculative science that leads to human blessedness, which is the perfect knowledge of God. Accordingly, the nature of man does not center in will but in cognition. The intellect impresses upon volition its spiritual character. In reason as the spiritual power of choice is the seat of " free will.

Here the Augustinian point of view gives way to the Greek. Human reason, or philosophy, may of itself conceive only a few religious truths and these only imperfectly and slowly; revealed knowledge moat amplify, confirm, and complete. Revelation is at hand in the inspired scriptures. By them man becomes absolutely certain of the truth because God is their author. Therefore, the Bible is the only certain and absolutely binding authority. But revelation is doctrine, preeminently the doctrine of the " first truth," God. Doctrine is summed up in the Apostle's Creed, and guarded against heretical misinterpretation by the Nicene Creed, the conciliar decisions, and the Fathers. A nova editio symboli is in the power of the pope, who calls the council and confirms its sentence. Faith takes hold of the revealed truth. As the " reward of life eternal " is promised to faith, the will finds that which is believed agreeable. The effect of faith upon intellect for the acceptance of what is presented for belief can take place only by the infusion of a " divinely inspired disposition," inasmuch as the truths involved are supernatural. Through this "divinely inspired disposition " the intellect is adapted to believe; " an act of faith consists principally in cognition and therein is its perfection." The fides inJormis becomes fides formats by the addition of love. This is self-evident; faith in itself remains