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of Greifawald and Berlin (1870-74), and after being private tutor in a nobleman's family in Curland, Russia (1874-76), adjunct of the Domkandidatenatift, Berlin (1876-77), and senior in the Studentenkonvikt Johanneum (1878,80), became privatdocent for systematic theology and the philosophy of religion at the University of Berlin in 1.880. In 1885 he was made a teacher at the Falk real-gymnasium in Berlin, and since 1890 has been associate professor of systematic theology and the philosophy of religion at the University of Berlin, and instructor in the Lessinghochschule in the same city since 1902. Besides preparing the sixth and seventh editions of C. G. J. Deter's Abriss der Geschichte der Philosophie (Berlin, 1898-1901, and 1906), he has written Schleiermachers Glaubenslehre in ihrer Abhdngigkeit von seiner Philosophie (Berlin, 1877); Der ontologische Gottesbeweis, kritiache Darstellung seiner Geschichte seit Anaelm bis auf die Gegenwart (Halle, 1881); Grundriss der evangelischen Glavbensund Sittenlehre (2 vols., Berlin, 1883-84); Studien zur vergleichenden Religionsuriasenachaft (3 vols., 1889-97); Praktische Ethik (1891); Die akademir sche Laufbahn and ihre 6konomische Regelung (anonymous; 1895); Friedrich Nietzsche ala Theolog and als Antichrist (1896); Katechismus der Dogmatik (Leipsic, 1897); Religionaphilosophie (1901); and Metaphysik (1905); F. F. Cabs Leben and Wirken (Berlin, 1907; prefixed to Calo's Photinissa Chrysopulos); Der Religionsunterrriccht eine GewissenzfraWe (Osterwieck, 1908); and Religion und Geschlechtsliebe (Halle, 1909).

RUPERT OF DEUTZ.

Rupert of Deutz, an important medieval theologian and abbot of Deutz, was born, probably in Germany, about the middle of the eleventh century; d. at Deutz (now part of Cologne) Mir. 4, 1135. Whiles, child he was brought by St. Laurence to the Benedictine monastery at Lidge, his slow talents, he affirmed, being quickened by the special favor of the Virgin; but he refused to receive

r. Early ordination since the investiture conLife and troversy was then raging in Lidge (see Writings. INVEsTrmuRE). During this early period of his life Rupert composed some hymns, including one, now lost, on the incarnation, a lost work De diversis scripturarum senten his, the fragment of the Chronicon Sancti Laurentii Leodiensis, and biographies of Augustine and St. Odilia. On the death of Bishop Wazo of Lidge, Abbot Berengar was removed from his monastery, and with him, in 1092, Rupert and other Cluniac monks sought refuge in the monastery of St. Hubert in the Ardennes. It was at this time that Rupert wrote his Labellus hymnorum, which in its thirteen poems gives a faithful picture of the condition of the Church as it appeared to the eyes of a faithful Ultramontane. A commentary to these hymns is afforded by the chronicle of the monastery, which must have been completed before Aug. 9, 1095, when Berengar and his companions returned to x-s

Lidge. He now received the ordination which he had refused to accept from the schismatic of Lidge, probably after 1106. During this time, moreover, besides his undoubted study of Hebrew, he read deeply in Plato, Plotinus, Dionysius the Areopagite, Aristotle, Heraclitus, Augustine, Jerome, Hilary, Arius, Sabellius, Symmachus, Aquila, Theodotion, and Gregory the Great. In 1111 Rupert wrote his twelve books De divinis ofciis, which explains the mystical meaning of the priestly office, beginning with the hours, vigils, bells, service of the altar, and vestments. The third book proceeds to the church year, the lessons, and the services on individual feasts, all the rites being explained by an astonishing abundance of symbolical exegeses of Scripture. At the same time he held that unworthy communicants received only the outward forms in the sacrament; and that Christ gives in the Eucharist only his spiritual, not his physical, body.

Rupert was still at Li6ge when he wrote the Super Hiob commentarius, based on the Moralia of Gregory the Great. The allegorical method of his predecessor is followed with extreme closeness, Job, for instance, allegorically representing the Savior. But his views had excited some suspicion, and Berengar, anxious to provide for Rupert's safety, recommended him to Abbot Ouno of i. Contro- Siegburg and gained him a patron in versies on Archbishop Frederick of Cologne. the Nature Rupert went to Siegburg apparently of God. in 1113, but was soon recalled, and within the year, or at most in 1114, wrote his De voluntate Dei to defend himself against the attacks of Anselm's pupils at the cathedral of Laon. The work is in twenty-six chapters and is a critique against the teaching at Laon and Chalons that God's will concerning evil was twofold, one permitting evil deeds and the other approving them, to the end that ultimate good might result. Rupert, on the other hand, maintained that the divine permission of evil by no means implied approval of it, bdt only divine patience concerning it. In his effort to escape the predestinationalism of William of Champeaux and Ansdm, Rupert approximated the position of Johannes Scotus Erigena (q.v.), who regarded evil as in itself non-existent, and as merely the shadow of the substance. Like thoughts filled the twenty-seven chapters of the De omnipotentia Dei, the tenth chapter of which establishes the thesis that God desires the salvation of all mankind. The Laon theologians were angered, and Anselm himself complained to Berengar's successor, Heribrand, as though Rupert were still a monk at Li6ge. Heribrand actually cited Rupert to appear at Li6ge, where he was acquitted. The opposition still continued, however, and he now assumed the offensive. In 1117 he went to Laon and then disputed at Chalons. Charge after charge was brought against him, only to be refuted with ease. In the midst of the controversy, the course of events changed and Rupert was called from Lidge to Cologne, thus returning to his monastery of Siegburg. Here he planned to write on the majesty and the honor of Christ; but from this task he was called by Cuno to prepare a work In regulam Sancti Benedicti. The first book tells of its author's learned controversies, the