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formal sanction to those scholastic theories and ecclesiastical traditions against which the Reformers protested. It has also again and again expressly condemned their doctrines, and, by claiming to be infallible, made itself doctrinally irreformable. In 1816 the first condemnation of Bible societies was issued by Pius VIL, who declared them " a most subtle invention for the destruction of the very foundations of religion " (Mirbt, Quellen, p. 347). Pius IV. in 1564 expressly condemned all versions of the Scriptures by heretical authors, i.e., Lutherans, Zwinglians, Calvinists, and the like.

In modern Romanism, again, two periods must be distinguished, which are divided by the reign of Pope Pius IX. (a) Tridentine Romanism is directed against the principles of the Protestant Reformation, and fixed the dogmas of the rule of faith (Scripture and tradition), original sin, justification by faith and works, the seven sacra-

Romania=. tion of relics, and indulgences. The

" Old Catholics " (q.v.), who seceded

in 1870 and were excommunicated, took their stand

first on the Council of Trent, in opposition to the

Council of the Vatican, and charged the latter with

apostasy and corruption; although in fact, and as

viewed from the Protestant standpoint, the one is

only a legitimate, logical development of the other.

(b) Vatican Romanism is directed against modern

infidelity (rationalism), and against liberal Catholi

cism (Gallicanism) within the Roman Church itself.

It created, or rather brought to full maturity and

exclusive authority, two new dogmas and two cor

responding heresies,-concerning the Virgin Mary,

and the power and infallibility of the Roman pon

tiff, questions left unsettled by the Council of Trent.

Gallicanism flourished in France during the golden

age of its literature, and was formulated by Bos

suet in the famous articles of Gallican liberties; but,

since the restoration of the order of Jesuits in 1814,

the Ultramontane school, which defends papal ab

solutism, has gradually gained the ascendency, and

secured a complete triumph-first in 1854, when

Pius IX. proclaimed the immaculate conception of

the Virgin Mary to be a dogma of faith; and in the

Vatican Council in 1870, which declared the pope

to be infallible. The same pope, in 1864, issued the

" Syllabus of Errors,"-an infallible official docu

ment, which arrays the papacy in open war against

modern civilization and civil and religious freedom.

The reign of Pius IX. (q.v.) was very eventful in

the history of the papacy: it marked the height of

6. Pius IX .; its pretensions and the logical comple

Leo gIII. Lion of its doctrinal system, but also

Pius X. ' the loss of its temporal power. On the

very day after the passage of the papal

infallibility dogma (July 18, 1870), Napoleon III.,

the chief political and military supporter of the

pope, declared war against Protestant Prussia (July

19), withdrew his troops from Rome, and brought

upon imperial France utter defeat and contributed

to the rise of the new German Empire with a Prot

estant head, and the downfall of the temporal power

of the papacy. Victor Emmanuel, supported by

the vote of the people, marched into Rome, fulfilled

the dream of centuries by making it the capital of free and united Italy, and confined the pope to the Vatican and to a purely ecclesiastical jurisdiction (Sept. 20, 1870). History has never seen a more sudden and remarkable revulsion. The rule of Pius IX., lasting thirty-one years, broke the tradition that no pontificate would exceed that of Peter, said to have lasted twenty-five years. His successor, Leo XIII. (q.v.), who gained the respect of all Western Christendom by his culture and character, walked in the way of his predecessors in again denouncing Protestantism as the " Lutheran rebellion, whose evil virus goes wandering about in almost all the nations " (Encyclical, Aug. 1, 1897) and in exalting the scholastic theology by formally pronouncing Thomas Aquinas the standard theologian of the Roman Catholic Church and the patron of Roman Catholic schools (,Bterni patris, Aug. 4, 1879). He also took an almost impossible position against Biblical scholarship in pronouncing the passage about the three witnesses, I John v. 7, genuine (Jan. 15, 1897). His successor, Pius X. (q.v.), in his encyclical Pascendi gregis, 1907, has taken a position against all freedom of Biblical and theological discussion by condemning Modernism (q.v.), forbidding all meetings of the clergy for theological discussion except in rarest cases and under severe restrictions, and ordering the appointment of " councils of vigilance " in every diocese to condemn, without giving reasons, all writings and teachings containing the scent of " Modernism." He has also shown his retrograde policy by forbidding women to sing in churches and limiting church music to the Gregorian chant. Both these popes have been as emphatic as was Pius IX., who made Alphonso da Liguori a doctor of the Church, in ascribing to the invocation of Mary infinite efficacy, and in calling upon the Roman Catholic world to pray to her.

The history of the Roman Church during the nineteenth century shows the remarkable fact that it has lost on its own ground, especially in Italy, France, and Spain, but gained large accessions on foreign soil, especially in England, by the secession of Cardinal Newman, Cardinal Manning, and 400 Anglican clergymen, and, by immigration, from Ireland, in the United States, and, to mention a small district, Geneva. Pius IX. reestablished the Roman Catholic hierarchy in England in 1850 and in Holland in 1853, and Leo XIII. in Scotland, 1878. On the other hand, this gain has been more than neutralized by the Old Catholic secession in Germany and Switzerland, under the lead of Drs. DSllinger, Reinkens, and von Schulte, and other eminent Catholic scholars, whose learning and conscience did not permit them to submit to the Vatican decrees of 1870 (see OLD CATHoracs), and the Loa von Rom (q.v.) movement in Austria, and by a growing spirit of enlightened Biblical discussion within the church by such men as Loisy of France and Father Tyrrell of England.

P. Scnwt. D. S. Sca.".

For the Roman Catholic Church in different lands apart from the United States and the Uniates (for which see below) see the articles on the separate countries.