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of the results he achieved. It is not to be forgotten that in the seventeenth century the French nobility had long ceased to fulfil the duties corresponding to their privileges; that the conduct of officials was too often influenced by narrow self-interest; that the position of France both at home and abroad was a perilous one. The evils of the later monarchy are not to be laid to his charge. In fine, Richelieu's great policy was to unite France at home and make it powerful and feared abroad. More than any of its kings, he was the founder of the French monarchy. JAMES WEsT1rAm THompsoN.

RICHER, EDMOND: French Roman Catholic and advocate of Gallicanism; b. at Chource, a village of Champagne, 1560; d. at Paria 1631. After completing his education in 1590, he was a parish priest for four years, and was then made president of the.,college of Cardinal Lemome. Shortly afterward, he became a censor of the university, where he was also professor in the theological faculty. In 1607 he published in three volumes at Paris, after some opposition, an edition of the writings of J. Gerson, and in the following year he was chosen syndic of the theological faculty, in this capacity opposing theses in defense of papal infallibility. In 1611 the brief summary of his De ecdeginatica et politics potestate (2 vols., Cologne, 1629), defending the superiority of councils over the pope and maintaining the independence of the secular government in things temporal, brought a storm of attack upon him. His doctrines were condemned by several provincial synods and the Curia, he was deposed from office, and was saved from imprisonment and being sent to Rome only by the appeal of the university. In 1627, after years of struggle, he made a forced recantation. Among his works, special mention may be made of the posthumous Apologia ;ono J. Gersonio (Leyden, 1674). (C. SCHMIDTt.)

.gtuds hidorique d critique our la renovation du gallicaniams . . . du xvii. sidele, 2 vole., Paris, 1876.

RICHMOND, LEGH: Church of England; b. at Liverpool Jan. 29, 1772; d. at Turvey (50 m. n.w. of London), Bedfordshire, May 8,1827. He was graduated at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1794 (M-A., 1797). In the latter year he became a curate on the Isle of Wight, and in 1805 rector of Turvey. While a child he was lamed for life. He edited The Fathers of the English Church (8 vole., London, 1807-12); and wrote Domestic Portraiture, or the Succesafud Application of Religious Principle in the Education of a Family, exemplified in the Memoirs of Three of the Deceased Children of the Rev. Legh Richmond (9th eel., 1861). But the work by which he is best known is The Annals of the Poor, 2 vols., 1814, which contains the immortal tracts: The Dairyman's Daughter, The Negro Servant, and The Young Cottager, previously published separately, of the first of which millions of copier; have been circulated in nineteen languages.

RICHTER, riH'ter, RMILIUS LUDWIG: Protestant cauonist; b. at Stolpen (2 m. e. of Dresden) Feb. 15, 1808; d. at Berlin May 8, 1864. He entered the University of Leipsic in 1826, studied law, became privet-docent and associate professor in 1835; and in 1839 regular professor of canon law and civil procedure at Marburg. His first publication was Corpus juris canonici (Leipsic, 1833-39), followed by Lehrbuch des katholischen urtd evangeli8chen Kirchenrechts mit besonderer Rtlcksicht auf deutsche Zustdnds (1842; 8th eel., 1886). Fundamental in importance was Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des 16. Jahrhunderts (2 vols., Weimar, 1846). In 1846 he went to Berlin, where he continued as teacher in the high school and author, serving in the mean time in various ecclesiastical positions, and displaying in all his tasks a deep spirituality, devotion to the Evangelical church, erudition, conscientious exercise of duty, and an irenic reserve. His knowledge and counsel were in demand in all Germany and Austria, and he served no less Roman Catholics, by whom his standpoint was often acknowledged to be liberal and unbiased. He recognized in the historical churches certain ethical quantities distinct from the State, to be conducted by organs of their own, unhindered by the sovereign State in the exercise of its function of securing to the church associations autonomy within legitimate spheres and defining its limits. He denied the doctrine of state omnipotence and vindicated for the Roman Catholic Church autonomy and self-administration, without, however, acceding to the pretension of that church to an imperium in imperio. Of much concern to him were the conditions of laissez-faire that arose in Prussia and continued until 1873, in relation to the Roman Catholic Church, when a delimitation of Church and State was attempted by constitutional compliance with the Concordat and the