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429 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA GamalleI Gardens 1). Gladiatorial shows were most strongly con demned by the Jews. In the New Testament Paul makes frequent reference to the foot-race and its rewards (I Cor. ix. 24-27; Phil. iii. 12; II Tim. ii. 5; cf. James i. 12; Rev. ii. 10). (E. K6NIG.) BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. J. Van Lennep, Bible Laude, . . Cue toma and Manners 1llusimtive of Scripture, pp. 573-574, New York-, 1875; J. G. Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, London, 1878; E. Buchholz, Die homeriachen Realien, ii. 1, pp. 280-299, Leipsic, 1881; J. 8. Howson, Metaphors of St. Paul, chap. iv., London, 1883; A. Huber, Udber das " Meiair " . Spiel der heidniachen Araber, pp 9 sqq, Leipsic, 1883; A. Wiinsche, Die Rdtselweiaheit bei den Hebraern, ib. 1883; M. Lazarus, Die Reize des Spieles, Berlin, 1883; T. Mommsen, R6mi sehe Altertilmer, ii. 517 sqq., Leipsic, 1887; G. Dalman, Paldstiniacher Diuyan, 1901, pp. 95 eqq., 182 eqq., 254 sqq.; DB, ii. 106-108. GAMS, gyms, PIUS BONIFATIUS: German Roman Catholic; b. at Mittelbuch (a village of Wurttemberg) Jan. 23, 1816; d. at Munich May 11, 1892. He studied at Ttibingen, and became vicar at Achstettin and Gmund in 1838 and teacher at Horb in 1841. He made a scientific journey at the expense of the State in 1842-43, and in the fol lowing year was appointed acting pastor at Wurm lingen and professor at Rottweil. After serving as teacher at Gmiind, he became professor of theology and philosophy at the episcopal seminary of Hildes heim in 1847, but in 1855 entered the Benedictine monastery of St. Boniface at Munich. Gams was a prolific writer, his principal works being: Aus gang and Ziel der Geschichte (Tubingen, 1850); Die Geschichte der Kirche Jesu Christi im .neunzehnten Jahrhundert (3 vols., Innsbruck, 1854-58; sup plementary volume; 1860); Margott, die Siege der Kirche im ersten Jahrzehnt des Pontifikats Pius IX. (1860); Kateehetische Reden gehalten in der Basilika zu Miinchen (2 vols., Regensburg, 1862); Kirch.en geschiehte von Spanien (3 vols., 1862-79); Das Jahr des Martyrtodes der heiligen Apostel Petrus and Paulus (1867); Zur Geschiehte der spanischen Staatsinquisitian (1878); and Der Bonifacivsverein in Deutschland 1850-1880 (Paderborn, 1880). He wrote also a biography of J. A. Mohler (Regensburg, 1866) and edited his Kirchengeschichte (3 vols., 1867-68), as well as the Series episcoporum ecclesia catholiea quotquot innotuerunt a beato Petro apostolo (1872; supplements 1879 and 1886). GANGRA, SYNOD OF (circa 340). See Eu STATHIUB OF SEBASTE. GANNON, THOMAS JOSEPH: Roman Catho lic; b. at Cambridge, Mass., July 14, 1853. He studied at Boston College, which he left in 1872 to encer the Society of Jesus. He studied the usual courses of the Society at Frederic, Md. (1872-75, 1889-90), and Woodstock College, Woodstock, Md. (1875-78, 1883-87), and was professor of Latin, Greek, and mathematics at Holy Cross College, Worcester, Mass., 1878-83. He taught philosophy at Boston College (1887-88) and at Woodstock College (1888-89), and after being assistant to his provincial in 1890-91 was president of St. John's College, Fordham, N. Y., until 1896. He was then again assistant to two provincials for five years; in 1901-06 provincial of the Maryland-New York province, and in 1907 became instructor of ter-

tiaries in the Novitiate of St. Andrew-on-Hudson, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. He has been a member of the Missionary Band since 1906.

GARASSE, ga"r&, FRANQOIS: French Jesuit; b. at Angoul6me (66 m. n.e. of Bordeaux), France, 1584; d. at Poitiers (60 m. s.s.w. of Tours), France, June 14, 1631. He joined the Jesuit order in 1600, and soon became known as a powerful pulpit orator. As a writer he devoted himself chiefly to polemics, sparing no opponents of his order, and attacking even the dead. In 1622 he published a pamphlet against Ptienne Pasquier, a Roman Catholic, who had died several years before, because the latter had defended the university against the Jesuits in 1565. Under the pseudonym " Andreas Schioppius " he wrote a polemical pamphlet entitled Elixir calvinisticum (Charenton, 1615) aimed at the French Reformed Protestants, and in 1619 he published at Brussels his Rabelais reforme, which was more of a satire than a polemic. He was especially antagonistic toward Pierre du Moulin, a prominent and scholarly Reformed polemic author. Garasse's writings are characterized by a lack of earnestness, scientific spirit, and thorough knowledge of his subject, as well as by a want of dignity and truthfulness. He died of the plague at Poitiers, whither he had been sent at his own request to care for the sick.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Hurts% Nomenclator literariua, i. 289, Innsbruck, 1892; Der, Bibliothkque de la compagnie

de Jesus, ed. C. Sommervogel, iii. 1184 sqq., Paris, 1892.

GARDENS, HEBREW: In gardening the Israelites were pupils of the Canaanites. The Hebrew gars meant either a vegetable-garden (I Kings xxi. 2) or an orchard (Jer. xxix. 5; Amos iv. 9; Eccles. ii. 5). In the first-mentioned were raised onions, garlic, cucumbers, and melons (which, eaten with bread, were leading articles of diet), and aromatic herbs, such as mint and caraway. Such gardens required careful and bountiful watering (Isa. lviii. 11; Jer. xxxi. 12). Vegetables were often planted in the fields after the harvest of the winter crop (see AGRICULTURE, HEBREW).

Of greater importance were the orchards (see FRUIT-TREES IN THE OLD TESTAMENT), which formed the gardens characteristic of the Old Testament. The kings of Jerusalem had such gardens in the valley southeast of the city (II Kings xxv. 4; Jer. xxxix. 4; cf. II Kings xxi. 18, 26), which served as pleasure-grounds, particularly when provided with water. To " sit under one's vine and fig-tree " was characteristic of a happy period (I Kings iv. 25; Micah iv. 4). The old Hebrew, like other dwellers in the scantily watered East (cf. the descriptions of paradise, in the Koran and the general Mohammedan conception), thought of paradise as an Eden with trees of all kinds, where, at evening, cool breezes blow (Gen. iii. 8). It was customary to place the family vault in a " garden " (11 Kings xxi. 18, 26; Matt. xxvii. 60). In Babylon such pleasure-grounds were popular (cf. B. Meisaner and P. Rost, Bauinschriften Sanheribs, v. 14 sqq., Leipsic, 1893), and the kings and noblemen of Persia delighted in beautiful parks (Xenophon, Cyropadia, I., iii. 12; Anabasis, I., ii. 71; cf. Esther i. 5, vii. 7). Indeed, the word parries, the later