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191 RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA Inman

Kahler's Wissenschaft der christlichen Lehre (Erlangen, 1883), and R. Kiibel's Christliche Ethik (2 parts, Munich, 1896). Strictly Lutheran are G. C. A. Harlesa' Christliche Ethik (Stuttgart, 1842; 8th ed., 1893), A. Wuttke's Handbuch der christlichen Sittenlehre (2 vole., Berlin, 1862), A. F. C. Vilmar's Theologische Moral (3 parts, Giitersloh, 1871), the second part of A. von Oetr tingen's Socialethik (2 vole., Erlangen, 1873-74; 3d ed., 1882); J. C. K. von Hofmann's Theologische Ethik (Nordlingen, 1878), F. H. R. Frank's System filer christlichen Sittlichkeit (2 vole., Leipsic, 18841887), and C. E. Luthardt'a Kompendium der theologischen Ethik (Leipsic, 1896). The Neo-Kantianism of A. Ritschl is represented, more or less closely, by W. Bornemann's Unterricht im ChrisLentum (GSttingen, 1891), H. Schultz's Grundriss der evangelischen Ethik (Gbttingen, 1891), W. Herrmann's Ethik (Tiibingen, 1900), Theodor Haring's Christliches Leben (Stuttgart, 1900), and J. Gottschick's Ethik (Tiibingen, 1907). J. Pfleiderer's Grundriss der Glaubens- and ,Sittenlehre (3d ed., Berlin, 1886) belongs to the school of liberal and speculative theology.

Among the more recent philosophical ethicists an idealism friendly to Christianity is represented by H. M. Chalybaeus' System der sPekulativen Ethik (2 vole., Leipsic, 1850), I. H. Fichte's System der Ethik (2 vole., Leipaic, 1850-53),' C. Sigwart's Vorfragen der Ethik (Freiburg, 1886), G. Class's Ideals and Giiter (Leipsic, 1886), F. Harms's Ethik (Leipsic, 1889), and A. Dorner's Des menschliche Handeln, Philosophische Ethik (Berlin, 1895). The influence of Kant is shown in A. Trendelenburg's Naturrecht auf dem Grecnde der Ethik (Leipsic, 1860), H. Lotze's Grundziige der praktischen Philosophie (Leipsic, 1884), Theodor Lipps's Ethische Grundfragen (Hamburg, 1899), and M. Wentscher's Ethik (2 vole., Leipsic, 1901-05). Herbert's point of view is represented by J. W. Nahlowsky's Allgemeine praktische Philosophic (Leipaic, 1871; 2d ed., 1885), T. Ziller's Allgemeine philosophische Ethik (Langensalza, 1880; 2d ed., 1886), H. Steinthal's Allgemeine Ethik (Berlin, 1885), and W. Rein's Grurulriss der Ethik (Osterwald, 1902). W. Wundt., Ethik (Stuttgart, 1886), and F. Paulsen, System der Ethik (2 vole., Berlin, 1890), show the influence of Positivism and Utilitarianism (qq.v.), and also reflect the teachings of the theory of evolution, as elaborated especially by Charles Darwin, and an ethical relativism conditioned by this theory and represented by H. Spencer's Data of Ethics (London, 1879) and Leslie Stephen's Science of Ethics (1882). Under such influences there has been a wide-spread tendency, even in German thought, to trace ethical requirements simply to conditions of culture, tradition, inheritance, and utilitarian motives, and to regard them as purely relative. This tendency is represented by Feuerbach's Ueber Spiritualismus and Materialismus (Leipsic, 1866), E. Lass's Idealismus and Positiroismus (3 parts, Berlin, 1879-84), and G. von Gizycki's Grundxiige der Moral (Leipsic, 1883). This eudemonism has found its antipodal pessimism in J. Frauenatadt's Sittliches Leben (Leipsic, 1866) and E. von Hartmann's Phidtcomenologie rtes sitt-

lichen Bewusataeina (Berlin, 1878) and Ethische Studien (Leipeic, 1898); while a degenerate offshoot of both tendencies is Friedrich Nietzsche's ethics of the " superman " (Jenseits von Gut and B6se, Leipaic, 1886), which overleaps all moral bounds.

In post-Reformation Roman Catholic ethics casuiatics first bloomed again through the instrumentality of the Jesuits, who cultig. Roman vated ethics diligently that they

Catholic might utilize it for advice in cases of Ethics. conscience. Among the moat im portant ethical treatises of the Jes uits special mention should be made of the works of F. Toletus, Thomas Sanchez, Antonio de Esco bar, Buaenbaum, Alfonso Liguori, and J. P. Gury. Their ethics seeks to render itself indis pensable through its subtly developed casuistry, and to become popular by its extreme adaptation to human weaknesses. The latter end is served by the well-known Jesuit doctrines of probabiliam, intention and mental reservation. This elasticity of Jesuit ethics, together with its Pelagianizing tendency, was assailed within the Roman Catholic Church especially by Jansenism, as represented in Pascal's Pens6es sur la religion (Paris, 1670) and Ques nel's &flexions morates (1687). The Jansenieta re garded the love of God, evoked by the operation of divine grace, as the one root of moral action, but they were led into gloomy mysticism and ascet icism by their faulty comprehension of the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith. Still more visionary and passive was the ascetic mysticism of quietism, set forth by the Spaniard M. de Mo linos (q.v.) in his Guidd spirituale (Rome, 1675) and modified by F6nelon, but attacked in both forma by the Jesuits.

With the end of the eighteenth century Roman Catholic ethics also came under the influence of philosophy. The Jesuit B. Stattler, in his Voll atandige christliche Sitrenlehre (2 vole., Augsburg, 1791), adopted the philosophical method of C. Wolff; while his pupil, S. Mutschelle, in his Moraltheologie (2 parts, Munich, 1801-03), followed Kant, as did F. G. Wanker, G. Hermes, and others. On the other hand, M. Sailer, in his Handbuch der christlichen Moral (Munich, 1818), set forth a Pietistic mystic eudemonism, a similar tendency being shown in J. B. von Hiracher's more scientific Christliche Moral (5th ed., Tiibingen, 1851). Some traces of Schleiermacher's influence are discernible in H. Mee's System der katholischerc Moral (Mainz, 1847), K. Martin's Lehrbuch der kotholischen Moral (Mainz, 1850), and C. Werner's System der christlichen Ethik (Regensburg, 1850); while a more traditional character is maintained in the ethical manuals of H. T. Simar (Freiburg, 1877), F. X. Linsenmann (1879), J. Schwane (1878-85), and Rappenhoner (1889).

SIEFFERT.

[English ethics dates from Francis Bacon (q.v.), who by an empirical method presented the good as the useful. To Thomas Hobbes (d. 1679) the summum bonum was self-preservation. In the natural condition every man's hand was against his neighbor; the state is therefore necessary. The