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views is hard to obtain from it. It was for his poetry that he was in ancient times most celebrated, since this gained for him the titles " Lyre of the Holy Ghost " and " Prophet of the Syrians." It was with this as a weapon that he fought against Bardesanes and his son Harmodius. In his hymns he used principally the measure of seven syllables, and the Syrian Church still makes use of his compositions (the " Nisibene Hymns " are in _NPNF, ut sup., pp. 165-220).

Ephraem was not the founder of a school of theology or exegesis like that of Antioch. It appears that his works were translated into Greek, since Sozomen states that they lose little by being so rendered. Jerome read but one in the Greek, that on the Holy Ghost. Burkitt criticizes Ephraem's theology as giving neither the historical Christ, nor the Christianity of the early Church, nor yet the clearly defined doctrine of post-Nicene times, and as failing in the point of intellectual serious-

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The chief edition of the " Works," begun by Peter Mobsrek (Benedict) and finished by J. 6. A. Aeeemani, was published, 8 vole., Rome, 1732-48. Other editions are: Opera seZecta, ed. J. J. Overbeck, Oxford, 1885; Carnaina Niriberta, ed. G. Bickell, Leipeic, 1888; Hvmai et Sermonea, ed. T. J. Larry, 3 vole., Mechlin, 1882-88; " History of Joseph," Paris, 1891; fragments of the " Commentary on the I)iateeearon," ed. J. R. Harris, London, 1895. Trawl. into Germ. are of selected works by P. Zingerle, 8 vole., Innsbruck, 1831-4b, and by F. Y. Reithmeyer, in Bibliot>ulc der RirchanvtUer, Kempten, 1809. Of Eng. trawl. may be mentioned: Select Works, by J. B. Morris, Oxford, 1847; Repentance of Nineveh, end Select Metrical Hymns and Homilies, by H. Burgess, 3 vole., London, 1853; NPNF, 2d eer., uii. 187-341. Eng. tranela of ten of his hymns are in B. Pick, Hymns and Pastry of the Eastern Church, New York, 1908.

The sources for a life are: the Encomium of Ephraem by Gregory of Nyees (best); and the briefer notices in 8oaomen, Hiat. ecc1., iii. 18; Theodoret, Hilt. aced., ii. 30, iv. 29; Jerome, Ds roir. ill., 115. The beat discussion of the life in Eng. is in NPNF, 2d ear., uii. 119-148; valuable, however, is DCB, ii. 138-144. Consult further: J. F. Geab, in Memorabiliea, ii. 138 eqq., cf. i. 65 eqq., Leipsic, 1791-98; J. Aleleben, Doe Laban des EDhraem der Sylrers, Berlin, 1853; C. Ferry, S. Itplvrsm poUe, Paris 1877; ICL, iv. 877-882; Behalf, Christian Church, iii. 928-. 933.

On the writings consult: J. 8. Aeeemani, BibliotAeca oriantalis, i. 59 eqq., Rome, 1719; C. van Lengerke, Commeafatio cretica d. S. Ephrasmo Syro, Have, 1828; idem, De Ephrasmi . , arts bsrmaneWirn, KSnigsberg, 1831; A. Hasea, S. EDArasni Syri thaolopia, Halls, 1889; Maeeinger, EroanQelii ooncordantia axDoe%tio, Venice, 1878; E. A. W. Budge, On a Fragment o/ a Coptic Version of 3. Ephraim . . . on fha Transfiguration, London, 1887; EDArarmi 3yri commeafarii in spistolw Pauli, Venice, 1893; H. Grimme, Dar StroDhanbau is den Oedicnten Ephraems des SDrars, Freiburg, 1893; T. J. Larry, L'Ex& opee as !'orient au quatrie~mms eipels, iv. 485-488, Paris, 1893; J. Gwynn, The Apocalypse of S6. John, pp. cii.-ciii., Dublin, 1894; W. Wright, Short Hist. o/ Syriac Literature , London 1894: R. Duval, La Litibratura arambsnne, Paris, 1895; H. Haring, Die Lehra van der Predipl, Berlin, 1897; NPNF, xiii. 148-1b2.

EPICTETUS: Stoic philosopher; b. at Hier apolis (121 m. s.e. of Smyrna), in Phrygia, c. 50 A.D-; d. at Nicopolie (3 m. n. of Prevesa), in Epirus, c. 120. For a time he lived in Rome as the slave of Epaphroditus, a freedman and favorite of Nero, but later he secured his freedom sad became a courtier of Nero- He studied the Stoic philosophy under Musonius Rufus and achieved distinc-

tion at Rome as a teacher of philosophy. When Domitian drove the philosophers from Rome about 90 A.D. Epictetus settled at Nicopolis, where he taught with great success till the end of his life. He seems to have written nothing himself, but his sayings were recorded by his pupil Flavius Arianus, who did for his master what Xenophon did for Socrates. As reported by Arianus, the works of Epictetus consist of the Encheiridion, a manual of moral teaching, and the " Discourses " in eight books, of which only four are extant.

As a philosopher Epictetus was intensely practical, and his teaching was concerned with the conduct of life, rather than with the problems of metaphysics. His ethics are of peculiar interest because of the similarity between his teachings and those of Jesus. Like other Stoics (see Sxolorsnt) he made virtue the purpose and end of life and identified a virtuous life with a happy life. As this ideal is to be attained largely through asceticism, " bear and forbear " becomes the watchword of a virtuous and, therefore, happy life. To be happy, one must restrict his desires and not meddle with things over which he has no control. The only thing in the world that is absolutely ours is our will. Nothing can break that; whatever we do, we do because we will it. But this will in us is only the divine will; and hence Epictetus deduces all moral laws from the will of God. As rational creatures we have part in the reason of God; we are divine. All that is irrational in the world, external sin and evil, is merely an appearance, and should not affect us. Epictetus lived in accordance with his ascetic teachings and is described as a model of wisdom and virtue.

His works have been edited by J. Schweighriueer (5 vole., Leipsic, 1799-1800), and by H. Schenkl (Leipsic, 1894; 1898). Among translations may be mentioned that of Elizabeth Carter (London, 1758), which has been revised and edited by T. W. Higginson (Boston, 1865), also those of George Long (London, 1890) and T. W. Rolleston (London, 1888).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The early life is by Diogenes LaerEiue in his " Lives of the Philosophers,, (beet edition by H. G. Hiibner, Leipsic, 1828-31). For a modern appreciation consult F. W. Farrar, Saekere attar God, London, 1888. For further discussion consult F. Ueberweg, OesrhidUe der Philosophic, ed. M. Heinae Berlin, 1898-97, and in Eng. the translations of the History of Philosophy of Erdmann (London, 1893), and of Windelband (ib. 1893). Alex. E. M. Schranka, Dar Stoiker Epiktet and seine Philoaophia, Leimic, 1885; A. BonhSffer, Epidat and die 3toa. Stuttgart, 1890; idem, Die Ethik du . . . Epsdal, ib. 1894. Other literature is indicated in J. M. Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Paycholopy, iii. 1, pp. 191192, New York, 1905.

EPICUREAlYI3>Il: The philosophy of Epicurus (342-270 s.c.), more particularly his ethics. The term is also applied loosely to any hedonistic tendency in morals. Building upon the materialistic metaphysics of Democritus, and the hedonistic teachings of Aristippus, Epicurus reached the view that happiness, or pleasure, is the chief good and the only possible end of rational action. In popular thought Epicureanism has received a crude interpretation not justified by the teachings of its founder. According to Epicurus, pleasure, though