CHAPLAIN: A term which, with its equivalents (Lat. Capellanus, Germ. Kaplan, Fr. Desservant), designates members of the clergy assigned to some loads of special service. In the Roman Catholic Church a chaplain is a priest who acts as assistant to the pastor of a parish. According to both Tridentine and earlier law, each parish has but one priest in full charge; if it is too large to be properly administered by him alone, he is supposed to appoint a sufficient number of chaplains, with the approval of the bishop. These serve directly under him, are maintained by him, and may be dis- missed at his pleasure. There are cases, however, in which a benefited foundation exists within a parish, with chapels or altars at which the incumbent is bound to say a certain number of masses. Such beneficed chaplains (capellani curati) are either bound to assist the parish priest, or may be specially directed to do so by the bishop. As beneficed clergy, they can not be removed at the latter's will; but he is not obliged to avail himself of their services, unless certain parochial duties are assigned to them by the terms of their foundation. Such cases occur most frequently in chapels situated at a considerable distance from the parish church, or in hospitals and similar institutions. In case the parish priest fails to appoint chaplains, or does not appoint enough, when directed to do so by the bishop, the latter, is accordance with the law of Devolution (q.v.), may proceed to appoint. In some places, by either written law or custom, the bishop has a general right of appointment on his own motion; and then the chaplains are removable not by the parish priest but by the bishop-- unless they have beneficed rights as mentioned above.

In France the chaplains were called desservants. The old French law distinguishes between parish churches (parochiales ecclesiae) and subsidiary (succursales) chapels which supplement them. The system of the seventeenth century drew a distinction between parish priests who were independent in their func-

6

tions and chaplains who officiated only by the license of the bishop, revocable at any time. This system struck Napoleon when he was thinking of restoring the Church after the destruction wrought by the Revolution. The Concordat of 1801 laid down only the fundamental principles, especially regarding the bishops, who were permitted to name incumbents approved by the government to the parish churches. The " organic articles " of 1802 went further into detail, and dealt with the support of the churches. As the payment of parish priests was undertaken by the State, it was desirable to limit their number, and provision was made for the establishment of one in each district. But as these districts were far too large to be administered by one priest, as many others as were necessary were to be chosen for succursales, and supported by their pensions and the voluntary offerings of the congregations. Their appointment was to be made by the bishop, and revocable at his pleasure. Imperial decrees of May and December, 1804, rearranged the assignments and provided a stipend of five hundred francs apiece. The desservants made increasing claims to independence; but the bishops were not inclined to give up their powers, and Gregory XVI. sanctioned the existing arrangement until further order. Repeated controversies arose over the position of these priests, who were by far the larger number in France, Belgium, and the provinces on the left bank of the Rhine; and while still theoretically removable, they succeeded in establishing the rule in practise that they should not be displaced except for cause, after an investigation by diocesan officials.

Historically, also, the name chaplain was early applied to priests who served private chapels, in castles and royal palaces. Bishops also had their private chaplains, who served partly as secretaries. The popes, too, have always had their own chaplains, who have as a rule acted as their confessors. By present use these latter are divided into three classes: honorary, ceremonial, and private. (O. MEJER.)

In Military and Naval Service

The clergymen employed in the army and navy of all Christian countries are called " chaplains," and are under different rules and regulations. Thus in the British army they are under a chaplain-general of the forces; are not attached to particular regiments or corps, but to garrisons and military stations at home and abroad. They are according to their length of service divided into four classes, corresponding to colonels, lieutenant-colonels, majors, and captains, respectively; and after twenty-five years' service are entitled to retire on a pension. They are not all from the Church of England or Ireland, but some come from the Presbyterian and Roman Catholic churches. In the United States chaplains are appointed by the president, and assigned or transferred by the secretary of war, but report monthly to the adjutant-general, especially as to the baptism, marriages, and funerals at which they have officiated. During the Civil War there was in the Northern army a chaplain to each regiment, but at its conclusion all were discharged. Later, thirty were engaged and sent to posts, generally on the frontier. To-day there are no regimental chaplains, but only chaplains attached to posts. Much depends upon the post commander whether the chaplain can be efficient or not. In 1907, Major-General Frederick D. Grant reports, there were fifty-three chaplains in the whole army, from different denominations and ranked as follows: Majors 4, Captains 41, First Lieutenants 8. He adds: " In general their duties are to have charge of religious instruction, visit the sick, baptize children, officiate at marriages and funerals, and by statute they have charge of post schools in the English branches." The number of chaplains in the United States navy on July 1st, 1907, was twenty-five, with rank as follows: Captains 4, Commanders 7; Lieutenant-Commanders 5, Lieutenants (junior grade) 2. Their duties are thus set forth in the regulations of 1905, communicated by the commandant of the New York Navy Yard. (1) The chaplain shall perform divine service and offer prayers on board of the ship to which he is attached, at such times as the captain may prescribe; and on board other ships to which chaplains are not attached, or at shore stations and naval hospitals, when so directed by the senior officer present. (2) He shall be permitted to conduct public worship according to the manner and forms of the church of which he is a minister. (3) He shall facilitate, so far as possible, the performance of divine service by clergymen of churches other than his own, who may be permitted by the captain to visit the ship for that purpose. (4) He may, with the sanction of the captain, form voluntary classes for religious instruction. (5) He shall visit the sick frequently, unless the condition of the sick renders such visits unadvisable. (6) Under the direction of the captain, he shall supervise the instruction of such persons in the navy as may need to be taught the elementary principles of reading, writing, arithmetic, and geography. He shall report in writing to the captain at the end of each quarter the character of instruction given, the number of hours of instruction, and the progress made by each person. He shall always report at quarters when on board. His duty in battle is to aid the wounded, and his station at quarters for battle and for inspection shall be as the captain may direct. Chaplains shall report annually to the secretary of the navy the official services performed by them. The pay of these army and navy chaplains varies according to their length of service and rank, and in navy according to whether they are at sea or on shore. In the French army and navy attendance upon the chaplains' services is voluntary, but in all other European countries it is compulsory. In the United States navy the penalty of disturbing a church service is three months' imprisonment.

Chaplains are also attached to militia regiments in the United States. They are chosen by the regiments, generally on the strength of their outside reputation, so that it is a distinct compliment and recognition of ability and popularity to be asked. They preach an occasional sermon, and clad in a distinctive uniform appear on the parades of their regiments.

7

[Page 7]

8

eleventh and the twelfth centuries the former secular canons were in many localities replaced by regular canons, living under a stricter rule, especially that known as of Saint Augustine, though it is not his composition, but a collection of excerpts from mainly pseudo-Augustinian sermons. These Augustinian canons, in their turn, were not seldom replaced from the twelfth century on by Premonstratensians. But the ascetic tendency was not strong or enduring enough to reform all the chapters. The independence given by the possession of property prevented their reconstruction on the original model; and the worldliness of the higher clergy made such regulation oppressive, so that the institution once more fell into decay in the thirteenth century.

The functions of the presbyterium as the bishop's council were assumed, during the period of the prevalence of the vita canonica, not by the whole body of the clergy living in community, but by those of the higher orders; and, on the other hand, room was found for the cooperation (in important matters affecting the diocese) of the clergy of the other churches in the see city besides the cathedral, and for representatives of the lay population of the city. The actual current administration was indeed conducted by the cathedral chapter; but when the distribution of revenues above alluded to made a division between the interests of the bishop and those of the chapter, the former was very apt to neglect to consult the latter, or to rely, for support in his measures, on the other clergy and prominent laity. The Decretals of Gregory IX. enforced the right of the chapter to a consultative voice; and it was finally established as common law that the chapter was the only body with an independent right to advise the bishop in the conduct of diocesan affairs. From the beginning of the thirteenth century the chapters succeeded in excluding the other clergy and the lay nobility from any voice in the election of bishops.

3. Canons

A full or capitular canon was one who had a vote in the chapter, a stall in the choir, and commonly, though not necessarily, a prebend, i.e., a fixed income derived either from a share of the community revenues or from certain specially assigned property, tithes, etc. In contrast with the full rights of the canonici seniores, who were in major orders, was the position of the juniores-- clerks in minor orders or youths receiving education in the capitular school, who had no voice in the chapter. The number of both classes was limited only by the amount of the community property. Later, especially in Germany from the thirteenth century, the number of canonries and prebends was limited in many chapters, at first for various economic reasons and then for the purpose of assuring a richer livelihood to their members. The custom still, however, prevailed of receiving youths to be trained for canonries. A special fund was set aside for their support, and they were bound on their side to the vita communis. They were known as juniores canonici non capitulares, domicelli, domicellares. In chapters with fixed numbers canonici supranumerarii were those waiting for a prebend to be vacated. The Lateran Council of 1179 had indeed forbidden the conferring of Expectancies (q.v.); but under the lax papal interpretation of the application of this prohibition to capitular positions, and the definite concession of four expectancies to each chapter by Alexander IV. (1254), the practise continued, and admission among the domicellares was regularly the title to a full canonry in order of seniority.

Qualifications for admission had long been fixed by the chapters themselves before the common law took cognisance of the question. The Clementine required the possession of holy orders, and the Council of Trent decreed that half the canonries should be given to doctors, masters, or licentiates in theology or canon law, and that in cathedral chapters half should be held by priests. The older statutes of the chapters themselves required (besides the possession of a " title ") that the candidate should have received at least the tonsure, and be free from notable bodily defects, and of unblemished honor, of legitimate, and sometimes of noble, birth; fourteen years commonly, sometimes less, was the minimum of age. While all canons were theoretically equal, there were officers among them to which special functions were attached. Such were the praebendae doctorales for those holding doctor's degrees, others destined to provide support for university professors, praebendae parochiales connected with a parochial cure, praebendae presbyterales for those in priest's orders who performed the requisite sacerdotal functions when the majority of the canons were deacons or subdeacons, praebendae exemptaa or liberae to which the obligation of residence was not attached, and praebendae regiae, either those to which sovereigns had the right of presentation from having founded them, or which were held by the sovereigns themselves as honorary canons. Besides the canons, who were frequently hindered by political position or disinclination from performing their spiritual functions, there were often a number of vicarii, mansionarii, or capellani, who had charge of the services and represented the canons in them.

4. Modern Organization

The organization of chapters in modern times is usually a simpler one, especially owing to their loss of political importance in modern states. They usually consist of a number of capitulares or numerarii, who enter upon their rights as soon as they are nominated; the canonici exspectantes, juniores, and domicellares have almost ceased to exist. The requirements are: priestly or (in some cases) any major orders;. the age of thirty in some places, in others that requisite for the subdiaconate or twenty-two, unless they must be priests, when it would be twenty-four; practical experience in ecclesiastical service or in an educational position, or at least a notable degree of learning; and in some cases native birth, either within the country or the diocese. Besides the full canons, there are in some countries honorary canons; in Austria and France deserving clerics who hold merely an honorary title without effective membership in the chapter, while in Prussia, although the obligation of residence is not imposed, they have

9

a sort of membership, extending at least as far as participation in episcopal elections. The office of vicar still exists; but in the modern chapter its holders are assistants rather than, as formerly, representatives of the canons.

5. Officers

As to the officers of the chapter, after the redistribution of revenues to which allusion has been made and the acquisition of property, the provost generally retained only the right of presiding over the chapter and administering its property. The enforcement of discipline and the conduct of public worship was usually in charge of the dean, who had a certain disciplinary power, to be exercised with the counsel and assent of the chapter; in the Middle Ages his functions were frequently combined with those of the archpriest. Other officials were the primicerius, cantor, or praecentor, in charge of the services and music; the scholasticus, in charge of the chapter school, and often of other schools in the see city or the diocese; the sacrista or thesaurarius, in charge of the sacred vessels, vestments, and other things used in divine worship; the cellerarius, who in the days of the vita communis provided for the housekeeping, and the portarius, who in the same period regulated the intercourse of the members of the chapter with the outside world. In the nineteenth-century reorganization of capitular life this whole system of official administration has been much simplified in some countries, especially in Germany, while others, such as Italy and Spain, retain more of the medieval arrangements. In accordance with the provisions of the Council of Trent, a theologian and a penitentiary are appointed for each chapter.

In the early period of the vita communis the decision as to the reception of new members into the community rested with its head, either bishop or provost, though the seniores sometimes had a consultative voice. After the dissolution of the common life, the chapter had the right in some cases to confirm or reject a nomination made by the bishop, and in others to nominate independently to certain canonries, while others, again, especially those founded by a bishop, were wholly in his gift. Further modifications were introduced by the papal claim of reservation, and by the patronal rights of founders. The emperors from the thirteenth century, and later other sovereigns and secular and ecclesiastical princes in their own countries, claimed the jus primariarum precum, the right to appoint one person to each chapter after their coronation or consecration. Opposed to this diversity is the principle of the present common law that cathedral canonries are in the joint gift of the bishop and the chapter, while in collegiate churches they are filled by the chapter with subsequent institution at the hands of the bishop.

6. Legal Provisions and Duties.

The chapter is now, since the dissolution of the vita communis and the distribution of what was originally common property, a corporation with a separate legal existence of its own apart from the bishop, competent to deal with both ecclesiastical matters and matters of property, and to ordain and manage its own internal affairs independently, as by altering its former statutes and making new ones. By common law the consent of the bishop is not necessary for this, though it is by special provision in some of the newer reorganized systems. The duties of the chapter as a whole include the daily performance of divine service, both mass and choir offices. Cathedral chapters have the further duty of assisting the bishop in pontifical functions and in the administration of the diocese. The right corresponding to the last-named duty finds expression in various ways. The bishop is required to have the assent of the chapter for any alienation of the property of the cathedral or diocesan institutions, for any notable change in the system of benefices, for the appointment of a coadjutor, for any measures which are prejudicial to the rights or privileges of the chapter, and for the introduction into the diocese of a new feast of obligation. He is further required to seek their counsel in the appointment or deposition of ecclesiastical dignitaries, in the granting of dispensations or confirmations, in matters which touch the interests of the chapter, in the more important questions of diocesan administration, etc. For the rights of the chapter during the vacancy of a see or the incapacity of a bishop, see SEDES VACANS. According to the Roman Catholic theory, cathedral chapters are not essential and fundamental parts of the constitution of the Church, but the, product of historic development. Accordingly, church law leaves a great deal to local usage in regard to the part to be played by them in the administration of a diocese; and they are lacking entirely in many dioceses, as in the " missionary " districts of North America, while in others (as in England, Ireland, and Canada) their organisation is very loose.

7. In Protestant Churches

Little need be said here about the survival of chapters in the Protestant churches. For the English system, see ENGLAND, CHURCH OF, III., 3. A few scattered chapters, of either cathedral or collegiate type, still exist in evangelical Germany, such as those of Brandenburg, Naumburg, Merseburg, and Zeits in Prussia, and Meissen and Wursen in Saxony. After the Reformation the chapters which came over to the new doctrine with their bishops were usually dissolved: but a few of them succeeded in maintaining their existence in spite of the local sovereign, especially those which did not become wholly Protestant and went on as " mixed chapters " (Osnabruck, Halberstadt, Minden), with a system of alternation as to the bishopric between the two religions, lasting even through the Peace of Westphalia. The connection of the others with the bishops who had become Protestants did not last long, and most of them were sooner or later incorporated with the territories of the sovereigns who had at first been their administrators; and only those named above survived the general secularisation of 1803. Even these, however, are not properly church bodies, but corporations for the preservation and administration of certain property and revenues; and steps have been taken toward the abolition of the Prussian chapters. (A. HAUCK.)

10

BIBLIOGRAPHY: D. Bouix, De capitulia, Paris. 1862; P. Schneider, Die bischoflichen Domkapitel, Mains, 1855; idem, Die Entwickelung der bischoflichen Domkapitel bis zum vierzehnten Jahrhunderte, Wursburg, 1882; G. A. Huller, Die juristische Personlichkeiten der Domkapitel in Deutschland, Bamberg, 1860; G. Finaszi, Dei capituli cathedrali, Lucca, 1863; P. Hinschius, Kirchenrecht der Katholiken und Protestanten, ii. 49-161, Berlin, 1871; A. L. Richter, Lehrbuch des katholischen und evangelischen Kirchenrechts, 8th ed. by W. Kahl, pp. 440 sqq., 528, Leipsic, 1877-86; W. F. Hook, Church Dictionary, s.v.v. Chapter and Dean, London, 1887; E. Hatch, Growth ofChurch Institutions, ib. 1887; idem, Organisation of Early Christian Churches, ib. 1888; E. Friedberg, Lehrbuch des katholischen and protestantischen Kirchenrechts, p. 164, Leipsic, 1895; H. D. M. Spence, The White Robe of Churches, London, 1900; H. Schaefer, Pfarrkirche und Stift, Stuttgart, 1903; A. Werminghoff, Kirchenverfassung Deutschlands im Mittelalter, Hanover, 1905.