The general ecclesiastical constitution of a State. The early Evangelical Church attached less importance to ecclesiastical ritual than the preReformation Church had done. As early as 1526 Luther observes in Deutsche Messe and Ordnung files Gottesdiensts: " In sum, this and all other forma are so to be used that where they give rise to a misuse they should be forthwith set aside, and a new form be made ready; since outward forma are intended to nerve to the advancement of faith and love, and not to the detriment of faith. Where this they cease to do, they are already dead and void, and are of no more value; just as when a good coin is debased sad retired on account of its abuse, and issued anew; or when everyday shoes wax old and rub, they are not longer worn, but thrown away and new ones bought. Form is an external thing, be it ever so good, and thus it may lapse into misuse; but then it is no longer an orderly form, but a disorder; so-that no external order stands and avails at all of itself, as hitherto the papal forma are judged to have done, but all forma have their life, worth, strength, and virtues in proper use; or else they are of no avail and value whatever " (1Verke, Weimar ed., xix. 72 aqq.). According to Lutheran ecclesiastical teaching (Formula of Con-
100cord, IL; Solids declaratio, x.; Apology, ziv.; Melanchthon's Loci, 2d redaction in CR, xxt. 555-556; the Saxon Visitationabuch of 1528; etc.) a uniform liturgy is requisite only in so far as it is indispensable to uphold proper doctrine and the administration of the sacraments; whereas in general the rightful appointment of the external functions of church officers and their sphere in the congregations is committed to the church governing board of the state authorities. The spontaneous development of church law, and especially the regulation of divine service, the sacraments, and discipline, as Luther ideally conceived it, proved impracticable, and gave place, though not invariably so, to definition on the part of temporal sovereigns. All these regulations, especially those of governments and cities, by means of which the canonical church forms that had previously prevailed in the land were modified in a reformatory direction, while the newly developing church system became progressively established, are called " Church Orders." Those of the sixteenth century are the most important (cf. E. Sehling, in ZKR, xxix., 1897, pp. 328 aqq., and introduction to his edition of the Church Orders, i., Leipaic, 1902).
A Church Order usually begins with a dogmatic part in which the agreement of the State Church with the general Lutheran confessions is set forth with more or less of detail (Credettda); then follow regulations concerning liturgy, the appointment of church officers, organization of church government, discipline, marriage, schools, the pay of church and school officials, the administration of church prop erty, care of the poor, etc. (Agenda, q.v.). A sys tematic topical arrangement is by no means al ways adhered to. As a rule, later compilations have made use of earlier forms, and thus the Orders are grouped in families. E. Sf;131.nsa. BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. C. Kbnig, BibiioWuca apendorum, Zeller- feld, 1728; J. J. Mower, Corpus juris euangeliorum eccle eiaatiCi, 2 vole., Z811ichsu, 1737-38; A. L. Richter, Dieeuanpelisclun Kirchenmdnunpen dew 16. Jahrhunderta, 2 vole., Weimar, 1848.
CHURCH PATRON SAINT (patronus sanctus): The particular saint to whom a church is dedicated, and under whose protection it stands. The early Church in a great variety of ways put guardian saints in the place of the tutelary deities (dei titulares) known to the pagan religions in connection with specific objects and relationships. In primitive times church patrons were taken especially from the number of the martyrs, who were esteemed to be influential mediators with God. Then when the worship of saints had developed from the veneration of martyrs, the guardian patrons were selected from among the saints not only for separate churches, but also for countries, dioceses, orders, cloisters, cities, congregations, gilds, brotherhoods, etc. The possession of relics of a saint in a certain church often determined his choice as patron. When subsequently the custom arose of naming churches after some Christian mystery-as, for instance, the Holy Trinity, the Holy Ghost, the Sacred Heart of Jesus-it came about that a church might be commended to the protection of a saint without bearing his name, thus creating the distinction
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[This article has not been corrected. Click Edit (col row full) and then Instructions to help] have arisen; it is easier to explain the other significances as secondary to this than to explain it as secondary to any of them; and the conclusion is confirmed by the fact and phenomena of " female circumcision " (improperly so called), i.e., the cutting off of the internal labia, which is almost, if not quite, as common se the male mutilation and as a rule accompanies it-a fact which has generally been ignored and its significance strangely overlooked.
In the circumcision of Hebrews and Jews three things are noteworthy: (1) Its marked religious significance; (2) the early age at which
Hebrew the operation is performed; (3) the sad Jewish absence of all trace of a female muti-
Circum- lation. Evidence is not at hand to vision. prove indisputably whether these features are original or secondary. The Biblical data are scanty, and when they were committed to writing primitive practises were already followed because they were " the custom of the fathers." Circumcision is stated to be " a token of the covenant " and the covenant itself, and its institution is attributed to the Almighty (Gen. xvii.10--11). It was regarded as the indis pensable requisite to the right relation with God, participation in his worship, and s share in his favor being exacted of " strangers " and slaves (Gen. xvii.12-14; Ex. xii. 43-48)--in later times of prose lytes. The popular mind went a step further and looked upon circumcision as the guaranty o_ the divine favor, a conception strenuously combated by the prophets (Jer, iv. 4, vi. 10, ix. 25-26; Ezek. aliv. 9; cf. Dent. a. 18, age. 6). These ideas appear in the New Testament (Acts vii. 8, 51, xv. 1; Rom. ii. 28-29, iv. 11). Indications are not lacking, however, that in its origin and early significance Hebrew circumcision did not differ from that of other peoples.* If the statement that " Iehmad was thirteen years old when he was circumcised " (Gen. avii. 26) preserves an old and true tradition, it indicates that the age in early times was the usual one of maturing manhood. The account of a general circumcising at Gilgal in the time of Joshua (Josh. v. 2-9) has still more the mark of an old tradition, which the scribe who wrote it down thought necessary to explain in the light of the custom of his own time (verses 4-7 being generally considered an interpolation); if so, it evidences that the Hebrews originally cir cumcised at the same age as other peoples, and the circumcision of a number at one time, with the hint of a special place of circumcision, is in accord with custom frequently found (cf. B. 8tade, in ZATW, vi., 1886, pp. 132-142). The use of flint knives (cf. Ex. iv. 25) is also noteworthy, being a circumstance not uncommon, even after better cutting tools have been obtained, and indicating, perhaps, the antiquity of the practise. The Dinah story (Gen. axxiv.) makes circumcision a pre requisite to marriage. The passage Ex. iv. 24--26, commonly called (with slight reason) J's accounta Cf. 9tsdae, quoted in Ploee; $nabenbuehneiduno. n . 12: " In preezilic time circumcision in Israel was solely a tribal sign; only in the Exile did it acquire the s3gniliadaos of a religious symbol (Heb. otA)."
of the origin of circumcision, is evidently a mutilated and incomplete fragment of a longer narrative, and the text of what is preserved is uncertain. Ire meaning is well-nigh unintelligible and it affords no secure basis for inference. Yet, if anything is dear from it, it is a connection between circumcision and marriage or the sexual life (for an interesting discussion of this passage, tracing parallels with the use made of the severed foreskin by various tribes, ef. H. P. Smith, in JBL, aav.,1906, pp. 1d--24).
Cssai.>es C. 8sxxrasrt.Bnanroassrer: The literature is enormous, but much of it may be dismissed as " freakish," the subject being am which has naturally proved attractive to erratic minds; almost all of the more serious treatises consider the prso· ties too exclusively from the Biblical or Jewish point of view. The beet treatment in existence is that of H. Ploss, is Des Kind in Brouah and Big* der YBtker, 2d ed.. LotDei0. 1884, vol. i.. DD. 847r394, with which should be compered the chapter on Der Ab>ch7uas der $%nderjahre, vo1 ii.. pp. 411-448. The same author's l>tenhi&fiichu and EfAno lapiacha fiber $,wbenbeschneiduny, Leipsie, 1888 (reprinted from Archie for Ouchichte der;ifedicin and ~sedicini~ (ieapraphie, viii.. 1886), is s partial repetition of what is contained in the earlier work with not much that is new. An article, Die BeeeAneidunp, by R. Andrea, in Atrhiv NIr Anthroyolopie, :iii (1880). pp. 68-78, is worth consulting with Ploee, who by no mesas exhausted all the materiel available when he wrote. Binge then a large amount of valuable mattes has accumulated in the pages of anthropologioal and ethnographical journals, the works of special investigators, and books of travel. The studies of the natives of Australia by Baldwin Spencer F. J. Gillen, A. W. Howitt, and others may be specially mentioned. Die BeaAnsidunp in ihrrr DaacAi"ichen, ethnopraphiadwn_ relipiBsan and rnedidnisehen Bedeulunp, ed. A. Glsasbarg, Berlin, 1898. is a cane treatment of various phases of the subject. The works on the Moesic law_ Old Testament theology, Hebrew archeology, sad the Biblical oommentariee may be consulted for the conventional treatment; and for Jewish conceptions and prsotisas, JA iv. 92-102.
CIRCUMCISION OF CHRIST, FESTIVAL OF. See Nrw-Ys.,tx'a FrsTivAl..
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