2. Cosmogonic Notions in' Ancient, especially Greek, Philosophy.
3. The Gnostic-Manichean Cosmogonies.4. Speculative Cosmogonies of the Modern PantheisticMaterialietic Natural Philosophy.
III. The Creation Theories of the Older Judaism and the Judaising Christianity of Many Fathers and Modern Theologians.
1. In Judaism Proper. 2. In the Patristic Period. 3. In Modern Times.IV. The Normal Via Media between Jewish and Pagan The. ories.
V. Preservation of the World.I. The Biblical and Theological Doctrine: The idea of the origin of the universe through the creative power of God is inseparable from the fundamental conception of monotheism. If there is but one living, personal God, nothing in the world can have come into being but through his will. Nowhere is this idea more clearly expressed than in the Old and New Testaments. According to the Mosaic account, God created " the heaven and the. earth," that is, the whole natural universe, " in the beginning " of all temporal being. In six working-days he called into existence all inorganic and organic beings by the simple word of power, " Let there be " this or that (lien. i. 1-ii. 3). God is not less the absolute creator of the world to the authors of Ps. xxxiii. and civ. and Job xxxviii. With the same definiteness the deutero-canonical or apocryphal literature of pre-Christian Judaism emphasizes the monotheistic nature of the idea of creation (Eccles. xvi. 26-xvii. 9; II Macc. vii. 28; Wisd. xi. 17 eqq.). In the New Testament the content of the Mosaic cosmogony is presupposed in numerous sayings of Christ and his apostles, as in those which mention the foundation of the world (John i. 24; Matt. xxv. 24; Luke xi. 50; Eph. i. 4; I Pet. i. 20; Heb. iv. 3), the creation of man and woman (Matt. xix. 4-6; Acts xvii. 24-26; I Tim. ii. 13), and the Sabbath, on which God rested (Heb. iv. 4; cf. John v. 17). God is repeatedly, spoken of as the Lord of heaven and earth, who made both (Matt. xi. 25; Luke x. 21; Acts xvii. 24; cf. Rev. iv. 11); as the primal source, of whom are all things (I Cor. viii. 6; Rom. xi. 36; cf. Eph. iv. 6); as the everlasting Father, who through the Son made the world (John i. 3; Col. i. 15-18; Heb. i. 2); as the invisible God, who reveals his eternal power and Godhead by the works of his hands (Rom. i. 20; Acts xiv. 17). The creation of the world out of nothing is mentioned at least once in the New Testament (Heb. xi. 3).
On the basis of this Biblical teaching the dogmatic theology of the Church developed. The most important Fathers, the scholastics, and the old Protestant theologians are in essential agremeat in the doctrine of a miraculous creation of the world out of nothing. The distinction is made between a first or immediate and a second or mediate creation. The former is the creation of " the heavens and the earth," i.e., of the substance of the universe both within and without this world,
as well as of purely spiritual or immaterial essences. The second is the gradual development and organization of the matter immediately created out of nothing. As the operative cause of creation the entire Trinity is named, the Father creating the world by the Son in the Holy Ghost (Ps. xxxiii. 6; lien. i. 2; John i. 3; Heb. i. 2; Col. i. 16; cf. also Rom. xi. 36; Eph. iv. 6). As the final end of creation dogmatic theology places the glorification of God or the complete revelation of his power, wisdom, and goodness-as the intermediate end the beatification of men through their union with God (cf. Gen. i. 31; Ps. viii. 5, xix. 2, exv. 16; Is. xiv. 18; Acts xvii. 26; I Cor. xv. 46).
The variations from this doctrine which have made their appearance in the history of human speculation have related either to the creative subject or to the manner of creation, modifying either the conception of a conscious personal Creator or that of a determinate process of creation rising by a definite progression to man. On the first point, they are inclined toward changing creation into a mere cosmogony or slow development of the world; on the second, toward neglecting the element of cosmogony or well-ordered plan in creation. The former is the common error of all pagan doctrines of the origin of the universe, as well as of such pagan-pantheistic speculation as has taken place within the Church. The doctrine of later Judaism and the Judaizing supernaturalism of many of the Fathers and late Christian thinkers suffers, on the other hand, from too exclusive monotheistic emphasizing of the absolute action of God in creation.
II. The Cosmogonies of Ancient and Modern Paganism: To pagan thought, creation in its essence is a slow self-originating process, into which the theogonic element enters, if at all, only in the final stages. Its result is the universe considered as mere thesis, or nature, not as ktiais, or the creature. This is true equally of the polytheistic, dualistic, and pantheistic systems of non-Christian paganism, of modern pantheistic tendencies with Christian form, and of their logical consequence, atheistic materialism.
1. The Mythological Cosmogonies of Paganism Proper: These are all characterized by some notion of emanation; they consider the world and the substances within it as effluxes of the Godhead, and thus suggest a certain coherence of matter and the created world of spirits with God. This is true also of the dualistic religions, according to which the world originates from the joint action of the emanations from the good god of light with those from the god of darkness-either in the way of a hostile conflict of the two principles, as in the Persian legend, or in that of the parallel development of both, as in the mythologies of the Slavic, and to some extent of the Germanic, peoples. Into both the dualistic and the pantheistic systems much that is originally polytheistic has penetrated, just as scarcely any developed pagan cosmogony is without suggestion of the monotheistic conception. A complete classification of the pagan cosmogonies will not be attempted here; it will be sufficient to glance at the moat characteristic ones, beginning
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A material transformation was brought about by the Gothic style, partly under the sway of religious individuality, partly through the realistic reaction of devotional plays. The kingly crown gives place to the crown of thorns; the effect of pain becomes visible in the bodily attitude, often most acutely so; the head is bowed, the body bent. A single nail now pierces or transfixes both feet, which are superimposed (for what is alleged to be better knowledge cf. F. Piper, Einleitung in die monumentale Theologie, Gotha, 1867, pp. 619 sqq.). The convulsive and tragical elements of the events are also reflected in the general setting. To this province belongs the German art of the sixteenth century, especially as illustrated in Durer and Holbein. It aspires to historical truth, and is not repelled by what is ghastly. On the other hand, the Italian Renaissance mitigates the harsh tones by application of its ideal of beauty. The same tendency is followed in the main by the art evolution of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; while the so-called " Nazarenes " introduced an insipid sentimental tone into portrayals of the Passion, which has its exponents even to-day. The modern religious inclination seeks to enforce historic truth, and does not shrink from the sternest realism.
At the outset the other personages presented by the Gospel narrative appear only to a limited extent (John and Mary, and one or two soldiers); but, as the Middle Ages draw to a close, richly animated scenes are created from the accessory details; most notably so on the carved altars. The religious dramas were of conspicuous influence in this direction. However, during the Romanesque period as well, certain legendary or allegorical figures begin to group themselves about the cross. Personifications of the Church and the Synagogue occur: the former as Victrix, the latter as Vanquished (cf. Paul Weber, Geistliches Schauspiel und kirchliche Kunst in ihrem Verhaltnis erldutert an einer Ikonographie der Kirche and Synagoge, Stuttgart, 1894, with illustrations). Adam and Eve, the primogenitors of sin, which the Savior expiated for them as well as others, kneel beside the cross; though usually Adam alone is seen, resting in his grave beneath the cross, or in the act of rising and uplifting his hand toward the Crucified. With reference to the grave on Golgotha, the skull and cross bones appear at the foot of the cross. Further more, in connection with Gen. iii. 15, a serpent is twined about the base of the cross. The chalice on which rests the Savior's foot, or which is fastened under the step, represents the Holy Grail. The chalice also is sometimes held in the hand of the Church, Ecclesia. At a quite early period, sun and moon are drawn into the scene, either in their natural semblance or personified; likewise, lamenting angels, God the Father, and the Holy Ghost on high. The popularity and wide circulation of the legend of Veronica (q.v.), again, accounts for the fact that the devout lady finds a place with especial frequency on the way to the place of execution, though sometimes as well in the vicinity of the Crucified.
The cross generally adheres to its traditional form. The medieval legends as to the wood of the cross became influential in approximating the cross in greater or less degree to the tree form. These observations attest the tremendous attractive power which the cross and the crucifixion exercised upon the religious temperament and upon ecclesiastical usage; and therewith, both directly and indirectly, upon art. See CROSS AND ITS USE AS A SYMBOL.
VICTOR SCHULTZE.BIBLIOGRAPHY: O. Zockler, Das Kreuz Christi, Gutersloh, 1875, Eng. tranal., London, 1877 (" sane and discriminating "); H. Fulda, Das Kreus und die Kreuzigung, Breslau, 1878 (of great value); C. A. Zestermann, Die bildliche Darstellung des Kreuzes und die Kreuzigung Christi, 2 parts, Leipsic, 1867-68; T. Reil, Die fruhchristlichen Dardstellungen der Kreuzigung Christi, ib. 1904; DB, i. 528-529; EB, i. 957-961. For list of books on the Cross in Art see under CROSS AND ITS USE AS A SYMBOL.
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