WINE, HEBREW. staking of wine t§ s). Dried Grapes (§ 4). Use of Wine (§ b). Artificial wines (§ 8).

Cultivation of the Vine (§ 2).

The usual designation for fermented grape juice is yayin, a loan-word in the Hebrew, corresponding to Greek oinos and Latin vinum; tirosh is used to denote the newly extracted grape juice

z. Names (Lat. mustum; cf. Mic. vi. 15) and also the juice yet contained in the cluster (Isa. lxv. 8). There is, however, no special emphasis herein upon the distinction "not yet fermented," since in the orient fermentation begins very quickly after the pressing, and even the tirosh is accredited with intoxicating effects (Hos. iv. 11; cf. Deut. xii. 17, xviii. 4). Less frequent terms are hemer (Deut. xxxii. 14), aram, ,hemra (Ezra vi. 9, etc:). Poetical forms are `asis, sobhe, etc. On the other hand, mesekh and mimsakh denote mixed wind (see below); while shekhar comprehensively applies to all intoxi cating drinks (cf. shikari, in the Amarna Tablets).

Both by climate and by the character of its soil Palestine is adapted to vine-growing. Indeed the vine has been cultivated there from a. Cultiva- high antiquity (Gen. xiv. 18, xix. 32 tion of the sqq., xxxvii. 25). In the Old Testa-

Vine. went, vineyards and the vine invaria bly betoken the fruitfulness of the promised land (Deut. vi. 11, viii. 8, xi. 14, etc.). And the vine is nearly everywhere grown, both on the hills and in the plains, and in the valley of the Jordan (I Kings xxi. 1; Cant. i. 14, viii. 11; Hos. xiv. 7; Isa. v. 1; Jer. xxxi. 5; Josephus, War, III., x. 8). Eastward of the Jordan the Moabites, Am monites, Amorites, and the inhabitants of Auranitis had vineyards in early times (Num. xxi. 22, xxxii. 24; Judges xi. 33; Isa. xvi. 8). In the later Jew ish period the vine appears as an emblem on coins. For the messianic times, in turn, the prophet an nounces that the mountains shall flow with new wine (Amos ix. 13; Joel iii. 18, etc.). After the Moslem conquest the culture of the vine was some what retarded, but it is once again assuming im portance. The vine largely runs wild in the ridges of central and northern Syria, and in Palestine the wild vine was known, bearing sourly astringent grapes (Isa. v. 2; Jer. ii. 21). The species now in cultivation bear mostly'white oblong fruit. Clus ters from twelve to fifteen inches long and weighing from two to three pounds are no rarity. While the species of vines planted in antiquity can not be posi tively identified, generally they appear to have been the black and purplish sorts whose juice is described as red "blood of the grape" and also typifies the blood, as in the Eucharist (Gen. xlix. 11; Deut. xxxii. 14; Isa. Ixiii. 2 sqq.; I Macc. vi. 34; Matt. xxvi. 27 sqq.; Rev. xiv. 19 sqq., etc.). The vine termed sorek appears to have been a noble variety (Isa. v. 2, xvi. 8; Jer. ii. 21), according to Kimchi a grape with small, seedless, white fruit. The Israel ites borrowed viticulture from the Canaanites. Like the cultivation of figs and olives (see Fruit-Trees In the Old Testament), it is everywhere the token of a higher civilization; hence the Greeks manifest much discernment in referring the intellectual and material culture of their country to the introduc- tion of vine- and olive-growing. Conversely, as among the Rechabites, antagonism to viticulture found expression in the particular fact that they abstained as a matter of principle from the enjoyment of wine. The cultivation of the vine requires much labor (Isa. v. 1 sqq.); and whoever plants a vineyard is to be sure that the field remain even for decades in the family possession, because only then is the cultivation remunerative. The preparation of the land exacted much toil. Along hillsides, the land had to be reclaimed by wearisome terrace cultivation, and the soil secured from erosion. Then the ground was to be cleared of stones, the plot surrounded with a wall or hedge (Ex, xxii. 5; Pa. lxxx. 14; Jer. xii. 10; Cant. ii. 15, etc.), and stone watch-towers, together with a booth or hut, had to be built for the vintners at the ripening season (Isa. i. 8, v. 1 sqq.). Lastly, a wine-press had to be hewn out in the rock (see below). Equally wearisome was the work of maintenance (Prow. xxiv. 30 sqq.); twice or thrice a year the vineyard needed to be plowed or hoed, that the soil might stay constantly mellow (Isa. v. 2, 6, vii. 25); weeds were to be removed, and large stones picked out again and again. The vines were carefully pruned, and rank shoots cut away (Lev. xxv. 3 sqq.; Isa. ii. 4). The plants were either allowed to trail along the ground (Isa. xvi. $; Ezek, xvii. 6), or trained up to stakes or trees (Isa. vii. 23; Ps. Ixxx. ll), whence the phrase "dwelling beneath the vine" (I Kings iv. 25; Mic. iv. 4).

The time when grapes ripen varies with local conditions; in the district of Tiberias and in the valley of the Jordan, some kinds are ripe in June; in the coast plain, the vintage season

3. Making occurs about the middle of August; in of Wine. the mountainous country, during September. This was ever a joyful season (Isa. xvi. 10; Jer. xxv. 30). Then it was that the Canaanites celebrated then great harvest festival (Judges ix. 27), the Israelites their Feast of Tabernacles; and both these feasts, besides their special features, bear the stamp of a harvest thanksgiving (cf. I Sam. i. 1-18; the threatened curses in Deut. xxviii. 30, 51; Amos v. 21). The wine-press (path) was hewn from the rock in the vineyard itself. It consisted of two round or angular basins. The upper one was as much as thirteen feet wide, but only from seven to twelve inches deep. In this the grapes were trodden or pressed with stones (cf. Isa. xvi. 10; Jer. xxv. 30). The second, rather lower basin, was of smaller area, but about three feet in depth. This was the receiving basin (yekebh; Num. xviii. 27; Deut. xv. 14). Sometimes there was still a third basin, receiving the flow of partially clarified new wine from the vat (for drawings of existing wine-presses cf. ZDPV, vol. x., plates 5 and 7). From the vats the wine was dipped into leather bottles or earthen jars (Josh, ix. 13; 1er, xiii. 12). There it was allowed to ferment, and this process began within from six to twelve hours after the pressing. Next the wine remained settling for some time on the lees (Isa. xxv. 6; Jer. xlviii. 11; Zeph.

383

i. 12); and afterward it was transferred to other vessels. Before drinking, it had still to be strained through a cloth for purification (Isa. xxv. 6; Matt. xxiii. 24).

Besides the wine, the dried grapes were and still are much esteemed (Num. vi. 3). The so-called raisin cakes (zimmukim) of the Old Testament are

not a product of the baker's art, but q. Dried dried grapes pressed in the form of a

Grapes. cake (I Sam. xxv. 18, xxx. 12; I Chron. xii. 40); with these may be compared the modern apricot cakes of Damascus, thin cakes of the crushed and sun-dried mass of apricots, that can be rolled like flexible leather. The other word for raisin cakes, ashishah, probably denotes baked cakes of dough, containing raisins (II Sam. vi. 19; I Chron. xvi. 3).

The use of wine was quite general; it belonged to the list of indispensable provisions (Judges xix. 19; I Sam. xvi. 20, xxv. 18). It rejoices the heart of

man, even of God (Judges ix. 13; Ps. g. Use of civ. 15; Ecclus. xxxi. 27, 28). Hence

Wine. it was not to be lacking as a drink offering on God's table. The vice of drunk enness was not unknown to the ancient Israelites, as is shown by the often quite caustic descriptions o'f the prophets (Isa. xix. 14, xxviii. 7 sqq.). Only the Rechabites and Nazirites drank no wine, and it was forbidden the priests during the time of ministration (Lev. x. 8 sqq.). It was drunk undiluted; addition of water was deemed a deterioration (Isa. i. 22). It was only in later times, under the influence of Greek and Roman manners, that the usage of mixing it with water came into vogue (II Macc. xv. 39). Yet the addition of spices was favored (Ps. lxxv. 8; Cant. viii. 2; Isa. lxv. 11), such as myrrh, honey, frankincense (cf. III Macc. v. 2), oil of roses, wormwood, pepper, etc. Wine mingled with myrrh was employed as a narcotic (Mark xv. 23); while as a milder sort of intoxicant it was a favorite bever age of women among the Greeks and Romans. The use of such spiced wine in the sanctuary service was not allowed.

Artificial wines (shekhar, see below; cf. Deut. xxix. 6; Judges xiii. 4 sqq.; I Sam. i. 15), which

were drunk among the ancient Israel6. Artificial ites, are not to be defined with much

Wines. certainty apart from the general mean-

ing of the word shekhar, "intoxicating drinks." Even Jerome was not sure what drinks were indicated by the term. In Cant. viii. 2, a drink from pomegranates is mentioned along with spiced wine. The rabbis use the term to designate Egyptian beer (zythos), brewed of barley, saffron, and salt, and also the Median barley liquor. They also mention cider and mead. Owing to the active comInerce with Egypt, possibly zythos was known even in ancient times; at all events, this is true of palm wine, which was pressed from the pulp of ripe dates, and so drunk throughout the early orient. Artificial wine was forbidden in the sanctuary service.

From wine and shekhar, vinegar (ltomez) was prepared; and this was also forbidden to the Nazirites (Num. vi. 3), though else enjoyed, when diluted with water, as a refreshing and thirst-quenching drink, at least by the humbler people (Ruth ii. 14;

Mark xv. 36; on the other hand, cf. Ps. Wx. 21). The same was true among the Romans, where essica was the usual beverage of slaves and soldiers, just as it still nowadays is in the East.

I. Benzinger.

Bibliography: A. Henderson, Hist. of Ancient and Modern Wines. London, 1824; A. M. Wilson, The Wines of the Bible, ib. 1877; C. H. Fowler, The Wine of the Bible, New York, 1878; H. B. Tristram, Natural Hist. of the Bible, 5th ed., London, 1880; Anderlind, in ZDPV, xi (1888), 160 sqq.; Benzinger, Archäologie, pp. 71-72, 143 et passim; G M. Mackie, Bible Manners and Customs, Edinburgh, 1898; V. Helm, Kulturpianzen and Haustiere, 7th ed., Berlin, 1902; W. Ebstein, Die Medizin im Neuen Testament and im Talmud, i. 36, 167, ii. 250, Stuttgart, 1903; DB, ii. 33-34; iv. 868-870; EB, iv. 5306-22; JE, xii. 532-535.