WESSENBERG, ves'sen-barg, IGNAZ HEINRICH KARL VON: Liberal Roman Catholic; b. at Dresden Nov. 4, 1774; d. at Constance Aug. 6, 1860. He began his education in the Institut St. Salvator at Augsburg, then changed to Dillingen (where Johann Michael Bailer, q.v., was teaching), and then to the University of Würzburg, where he became acquainted with Karl Theodor von Dalberg, who was greatly to influence his life; he next at tended the University of Vienna, spending the most
of his energies, however, in the library and in making the acquaintance of a circle of men highly placed in political position. In 1798 he went to Constance, where he had a pretend in the cathedral, pursuing, meanwhile, his .studies in history and canon law. Here s poetical letter, Ueber den. VerfaU der Bitten in Deutschland (Zurich, 1799), indicated the general bent of his thought. He held a high ecclesiastical position next in Augsburg; by this time Dalberg was bishop of Constance, and he invited Wessenberg to his diode as vicar-general. In this position he worked so effectively that he soon gained papal approval ill a special brief. He sought to make conditions there higher and more ethical, worked for the foundation of seminaries for the priesthood, inaugurated ministerial conferences, attempted to improve the sermon and catechetical exercises, and aroused by these measures great hostility and caused complaint to Rome. On the death of Dalberg he was nominated as administrator of the diocese, but the false assertion that he denied the deity of Christ and other complaints caused the Curia to reject the nomination. At Rome the pope refused him audience, and his general reception was unfavorable. In 1827 he laid down his office and retired to private life at Constance, though he served in the Baden house of representatives and was honored by high and low.
Two leading ideas controlled Wesaenberg's life: he desired to see a national German Catholic Church and the revival of councils, and these purposes gained for him the enmity of the Curia. He re garded the Gallican Church with its four articles of 1682 as an excellent model; and toward a church of this pattern in Germany he labored at the congress at Vienna in 1814, using his influence and his .pen Die deutsche Kirche, ein Yorschlag zte ihrer neuen. Be gri:ndung and Einrichtung (1815)-but in vain. In his ecclesiastical and theological thinking he was midway between Bailer and Benedikt Maria Werkmeister (q.v.), excelling both in political insight and energy. He was especially anxious to see a return to the conditions of primitive Christianity. In his major work, Die grossen Kirchenversammlungen des 16. xcrul 16. Jahrhunderts (4 vols., 1840), in spite of the mass of materials which he tad read, there fail the notes of solid learning and scientific method. His brochures on practical theology display little depth of acuteness. So his Gott und die Welt, oiler das Verhultnis der Dinge zueinander and zu Gott (2 vols., 1857) does not transcend the limits of a pop ularly philosophical presentation. He also was known as a poet (Siimtliche Dichtungen, 7 vols., Stuttgart and Tübingen, 1834-54). Other works were: BetrachEungen caber die Verhdltnisse der kalho lischen Kirche in Urttfange des detetschen Bundes (1816); Die chrisllichen Bilder (1826-27); and Ueber Schwkrmerei (1832). Where he shines is as a Christian character, to which were added the graces of a noble culture. These worked out into a liberal, patriotic, and broad Catholicism, which was, how ever, denied its fruition through the entrance into his region of a Jesuitical and Romanizing Catholi cism.Bibliography: Sketches of the life have been issued by J. Beck, Freiburg, 1862; Kreuz. St. Gall, 1863; Friedrich, in F. von Weech, Badische Biographien, vol. ii., Darm-
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The West Indies constitute an archipelago extending in an eastward curve from North to South America, and separating the Caribbean Sea from the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. The principal groups from north to south are: (1) The Bahamas, consisting of home thirteen low islands with many keys and reefs; area, 5,450 sq. m.; population, 53,735; Nassau is the capital and chief port.
(2) The Greater Antilles, which ini. Geog- elude Cuba, the largest of the West raphy. Indies, with an area of 44,164 sq. m.; population, 1,820,239, moat of whom are white; Havana is the capital, and the codlmer cial center of a$ the islands. Haiti, the next island, has a total area of 28,250 sq. m., and is divided into the two Republics of Haiti; area, 10,2(15 sq. m.; population, 96(1,000, nine-tenths of whom are negroes--and Santo Domingo; saes, 18,045 sq- in-; population, 610,000, a mixed race descended from the aborigines and their Spanish conquerors. West of Haiti lies Jamaica, which, including its dependent islands, has an area of 4,424 sq. m., and a population of 716,394, a mixture of whites, blacks, and half-breeds; Kingston in the capital and leading city. (3) The Lesser Antilles, properly including two groups: the Caribbean and Venezuelan, or Windward and Leeward, Islands, of which the largest and beat-known are the French inland of Martinique, the British island of Barbadoes, and, in the extreme south, Trinidad.
The islands were discovered in 1492 and succeeding years by Columbus in his voyages to the New World. The Spanish first settled at Haiti, and later at Cuba, Porto Rico, and Jamaica, treating the natives with such cruelty that by the middle of the eighteenth century they were practically exterminated, and negro maven were imported to work on the plantations. During the seventeenth century
the Spanish were followed by the a. History French, English, and Dutch, who aet-
and fled in the Bahamas and the Carib Population. bean Islands. Little by little theislands were wrested from their first conquerors, and the opening of the twentieth century sees Cuba an independent republic, under the
WEST INDIES.protection of the United States; Haiti and Santo Domingo, independent republics; Porto Rico, a part of the United Staten; the Bahamas and Jamaica, crown colonies of Great Britain; and the remaining islands divided among Great Britain, France, Denmark, Holland, Sweden, and Venezuela. Among the population, the larger portion of whom are illiterate, only a remnant of the original inhabitants remain. It is estimated that fully 60 per cent of the entire population are mulattoes; in Cuba and Porto Rico the white race predominates, but in the other islands the colored race is in the majority, and in all there is a sprinkling of Chinese and Hindug. In Cuba, Porto Rico, and Santo Domingo, Spanish is the prevailing language; in Haiti it is French; in the British islands a Negro-English patois is spoken; the southern islands use a conglomerate of Dutch and Spanish, and in all fragments of aboriginal dialects are to be found; Roman Catholicism in the dominant religion.
In the journal of his first voyage Columbus states that, " In all those islands there is no difference of physiognomy, of manners, or of language, but they alt clearly understand each other-a circumstance very propitious for .the realization of what I conceive to be the principal wish of our Most Serene King, namely, the conversion of them people to the Holy Faith of Christ." In his will he desired his heirs " to spare no pains to put in this island of Espallola four good professors of theology . . to convert to our Holy Faith the inhabitants of the Indies." Side by side with the passion for conquest in material think was that of spiritual conquest in the minds of there early Spanish explorers, and cenversion, by any means, wan the order. Conquest was first; lands were seized, and natives were enslaved; after that came the proselytizing. One of the first missionaries was Bartolom6 de Las Caaas (q.v.), who came to Cuba in 1502 and began a heroic struggle, not only with the heathenism of the islanders, but with the rapacity of their conquerors, and in this he had many associates of the Dominican order, though their efforts were of little avail to stem the tide. After the death of Las Cases, who wan rightly called the "Apostle to the West Indies,"
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and in 1556 the Jesuits established a 3. The mission at Havana, which was continSpanish ued for six years, though with indifferPeriod. ent success; and at last they, too, were driven out by the determined opposition of the planters. During these and ensuing years the history of the West Indies is a dark record of slavery, piracy, and cruelty. The Church and the State were one, and the former had to bear the blame for both. No faith but Roman Catholicism was allowed, and the inquisition was introduced to extirpate heresy. The native population rapidly disappeared, and Africans, Chinese, and Hindus were either captured or lured into slavery to take their place. Nor was the pall lifted with the coming of the other Christian nations. England made penal colonies of her islands, and in the early days of her occupation "Barbadoed" became a significant term in London, for men and women, as well as boys and girls, were kidnaped and shipped to the islands; and all, Spanish, French, Dutch, and English, vied with each other in lust of land, slaves, and gold.
The English conquest of 1661 was followed by the entrance of the Church of England in 1662, but in its early history in the West Indies it did no missionary work, the clergymen devoting themselves wholly to the English residents in the islands. In 1703 the
Society for the Propagation of the 4. Non- Gospel began to render aid with books Roman and money, but the first organized Missions. Protestant missionary effort in the
islands was that of the Unity of the Brethren, or Moravians, in 1732. The Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society of England followed in 1786; the Baptist Missionary Society of England and the Church Missionary Society in 1814; the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in 1818; the Scottish Missionary Society in 1824; the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland and the London Missionary Society in 1835; the American Missionary Association in 1847; the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1865; and the Southern Baptist Convention in 1886; while during all these years the Roman Catholic orders, including the Dominicans and Jesuits, have been more or less actively working.
The first Moravian missionaries to the West Indies were two artizans, Leonard Dober, a potter, and David Nitschmann (q.v.), a carpenter, who, while with Zinzendorf at Herrnhut, had met a negro slave, named Anthony, from St. Thomas, and had been profoundly impressed with the great need of the natives in that island for the Gospel. Amid great difficulties they made their way to the West Indies in 1732, ready themselves to become slaves, if need be, in their enthusiasm to help the oppressed. They were followed the next year by twenty-nine others,
many of whom succumbed to the clip. Mora- mate, while the planters opposed them vians. on every hand. Nevertheless, a few slaves were baptized, and through one of them a great awakening spread. over the entire island of St. Thomas. The planters became more
bitter in their opposition, punishing slaves who attended service and increasingly persecuting the missionaries, till, when Zinzendorf visited the island in 1739, he found several of them in prison, under a charge of being dangerous agitators. He secured their release, but laws were passed forbidding work among the slaves, and the banishment of the missionaries was attempted. Yet some few of the planters became friendly, and by their changed attitude greatly helped the work. In 1733 St. Croix was occupied, and subsequently became the principal station of the Moravians in the Danish Islands; the work was pushed as rapidly as possible to other islands, and St. John was occupied in 1741, Jamaica in 1754, Antigua in 1756, Barbadoes in 1767, St. Kitts in 1777, and Tobago in 1787. In the centenary jubilee of 1832, a total of 37,000 persona who had received baptism was reported. The West Indies Mission of the Moravians, with its 40,000 Christians, is becoming an independent Church province. It receives little outside financial support, schools have native teachers, and many of the churches possess native pastors, but the supervision of the work is still in the hands of the European missionaries.
There were in 1911 59 churches, with 16,363 communicants; 51 stations; 39 substations; 50 missionaries; and 854 native helpers.
After the Moravians, the English Wesleyana were the next to enter the field. A Mr. Gilbert, Speaker of the House of Assembly at Antigua, while on a visit in England, heard Wesley preach and was converted. He returned to Antigua in 1760, and at once began work among his slaves, some 200 of whom were converted. After his death the work was continued by two slave women until the arrival of John Baxter, a Christian shipwright, who continued the work alone for eight years, laboring in the dockyards for his support. About 2,000 slaves had become Christians, when, in 1786, Thomas Coke (q.v.), on his way to Nova Scotia with three missionaries, was driven by storm to
6. English Antigua, where he remained about Wesleyans. six weeks, visiting several islands and locating missionaries in the new sta tions. The planters opposed the Wesleyans as bit terly as they did the Moravians, and in 1792 a law was. passed prohibiting all but rectors of parishes to preach without a license, which no one who had not resided for twelve months on the island could re ceive; for the first infringement of this law, the punishment was fine or imprisonment; for the sec ond, corporal punishment and banishment; if ban ished, the penalty for return was death. This law was in force but a short time when it was abrogated by the king, as contrary to the British Constitution, and in 1794 the missionaries again resumed work, the negroes responding joyously. By 1813 over 11,000 Christians were found in the Wesleyan missions alone. In 1820 the entire West Indies field was di vided into four districts: Antigua, St. Vincent, Jamaica, and the Bahamas, and the work every where progressed rapidly, though not without op position. The influx of immigrants had an unfavor able effect, those from Africa especially tending to demoralize the people by their heathen proclivities,|
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The Baptist Missionary Society of England began work in Jamaica in 1813, building on the foundations laid by a negro from Virginia, who had labored in Kingston since 1783. After his death the work was continued by one of his followers, and he applied to the Baptist Missionary Society
7. English Baptists. for aid. By the advice of William Wilberforce, (q.v.), missionaries were sent out in 1813; chapels were built and schools established; more missionaries were sent out; and by 1831 there were 14 English mission aries in charge of 24 churches and 10,000 communi cants. This year the slaves rebelled against their masters, and missionaries were charged with having instigated the insurrection. They were arrested and their lives were threatened, but when brought to trial they were acquitted. Many of their chapels and schools had been destroyed, however, and two of their number, Knibb and Burchell, were sent to England, not only to ask for assistance, but to enter a vigorous protest against the traffic in slaves. Their mission was successful, the government indemnified the mission for the property which had been des troyed, and the abolition of the slave-trade in their possessions immediately followed. The work was resumed and greatly prospered, so that in 1842 the Jamaica Baptist Missionary Union was formed, in cluding 132 almost entirely self-supporting churches. Other stations were occupied, missionaries were sent to Trinidad, the Turk Islands, Santo Domingo, and the Bahamas, and here also the people contributed largely to their own support. The society gradu ally discontinued its workers, so that by 1900 of the ten English missionaries on the field, all but two were independent of its aid. At this time there were 286 stations and substations, some 600 native helpers, 186 churches, and 38,341 communicants.The Church Missionary Society of England entered the field in 1814, beginning work on Antigua, and opening stations on Jamaica in
8. Church 1826, and on Trinidad in 1836. When, of England. however, the Colonial State Church was organized in 1839, the C. M. S. with drew from the field. Early in the eighteenth century, General Christopher Codrington bequeathed two es tates to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, to provide instruction for the negroes in the Barba does and other Caribbean Islands, with the stipulation that an institution be maintained where the "students shall be obliged to study and practice Phisick and Chirurgexy as well as Divinity, that by the apparent usefulness of the former to all mankind they may do good to men's souls while taking care of their bodies." The college was formally opened in 1745, and the S. P. G. still administers the trust by which it is supported. In 1818 the society sent missionaries to the Barbadoes, and gradually ex tended its work to the other islands, but it also withdrew from the field in 1839, only continuing its trust of Codrington College.The Scottish Missionary Society began a work at Jamaica in 1824, which was rapidly pushed to other islands. In 1835 the first missionaries of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland were sent out, and Trinidad was occupied; while in the following year the two societies united in forming the Jamaica Presbytery. Three new stations were occupied 1837-40, and the work greatly prospered, until, in 1847, the Scottish Society gave the
g. Scotch work over entirely to the United Prea-In 1861 James Theodore Holly (q.v.) obtained permission from the Missionary Committee of the Protestant Episcopal Church to go to Haiti with a missionary colony; and he there established a work which, in 1865, was taken under the control
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io. Protes- successful that in less than a decade tart Epic- the Church in Haiti was recognised by copalians. the General Convention, and Holly was consecrated its first bishop. In 1883 the work practically became independent, though receiving some financial aid as one of the churches in communion with the Protestant Episcopal Church. 1n 1911 there were 11 priests, 2 deacons, 13 lay readers, 21 missions, 753 communicants, 189 day-school pupils, 358 Sundayschool pupils, contributions $2,076.
After the Cuban rebellion of 1880, Captain Diaz of the inaurrectos fled to New York to escape the Spanish forces. While there he was converted, and, after some time spent in study, returned to Cuba to preach the gospel to his fellow countrymen. He persevered amid great persecution, but
z:. Amer- in 1885 the Southern Baptist Conveniean Bap- tion went to his assistance, he was ortists and darned, and the following year the other first Protestant church was organized
Protestant in Havana. During the next two years Otganiza- over 1,000 people were baptized; nine dons. native pastors were at work; and dayand Sunday-schools were established. Other churches were organized in various parts of the island, and seventeen preaching-stations were maintained. Over 800 persons applied for baptism in one year, but most of them were totally ignorant as to the meaning of the rite. Over 2,000 children were in the Sunday-school in Havana alone, and from 150 to 200 in each of the other churches. The work of Diaz is conspicuous in that it was the only organised Protestant work in Cuba previous to the Spanish-American War. Other organizations working in the remaining islands of the group to a greater or less extent were the Danske Evangelisk-Lutherske Statskirke (1665); the African Methodist Episcopal Church (1824); the United Methodist Free Churches of England (1838); the Presbyterian Church of Canada (1869); the American Baptist Missionary Union (1870); the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, and the Presbyterian Church in the U. S. A. X1872); the Methodist Episcopal Church (1873); the Presbyterian Church in the U. S. (1874); the Christian Woman's Board of Missions (1876); the American Friends Board o_ Foreign Missions (1883); the Seventh Day Adventists (1890); the Christian and Missionary Alliance (1891); and the National Baptist Convention (1893).
Up to the time of the Spanish-American War (1898-99), Protestant missionary operations in the West Indies had been confined largely to the Bermudas, Haiti, Jamaica, and the Lesser Antilles; Cuba and Porto Rico being Spanish possessions which missionaries were forbidden to ra. General enter. As a result of the labors of the Present various organizations, the Bermudas
Conditions. and the Lesser Antilles may be considered Christianized, though many of the people are weak and ignorant, and there is much room for future development on every line. Haiti
and Santo Domingo are outwardly Roman Catholic, but underneath the form of religion is a current of superstition, and African fetishism still holds many in its thrall. Jamaica is perhaps the most thoroughly Christian of any island in the group, owing to the dominance of England and the natural possibilities of the island. While none of these islands are now properly considered as mission fields, there is large opportunity for building up the weak church-members into strong Christian communities, and this is the present work which is engaging the missionary organizations of the various churches.
During the years that the missionaries were slowly working a transformation in these islands, Cuba and Porto Rico were debarred from all progress by the policy of Spain, even the priesthood being against civic reform and freedom of religious worship. The political rulers were in the islands solely for gain, and the religious leaders as a class were ignorant, avaricious, and indifferent to their holy office. Cathedrals were built, and there was a form of religion; all ecclesiastical functions were
13- Cuba. Punctiliously Performed; but prao tically nothing was done, during the four centuries of Spanish dominion, for the better ment of the people. In 1790 there were but two schools, outside Havana, in the entire island of Cuba, as the archbishop refused to sanction more on the ground that popular education was unneces sary. In Porto Rico there was a system of educa tion in the cities, but there were few schools of any kind in the rural districts, and fully 87 per cent of the people could neither read nor write. The people rose repeatedly against their conquerors, only to be the more oppressed. Promises of reforms and free dom were made only to be broken, and at last the long history of misgovernment culminated in the revolution of 1895, when a four-years' struggle en sued. The conflict was terminated only by the in tervention of the United States, which sent an army to Cuba, the result being the withdrawal of Spain from the group, and ultimately the annexation of Porto Rico to the United States and the formation of the Republic of Cuba under the protection of the United States. In 1900 the Constitution of this new republic guaranteed that " All religious be liefs, as well as the practise of all forms of religion, are free, without further restriction than that de manded by respect for Christian morality and pub lic order." As soon as this clause became effective the field was occupied by various American mis sionary organizations. The Southern Baptist Con vention had been working in Cuba since 1886, but the missionaries were forced from the field by the war, and at its close they found themselves with one nominal church, of " forty scattered and unfindable members." Work was reopened with new vigor, and so prospered that it is said that over one-third . of all the Protestants on the island belong to this one church. There are (1911) 2 missionaries, 26 pastors and helpers, 2 stations, 41 substations, and 18 churches, with 1,078 communicants. Other societies which have entered Cuba since 1898 are the Meth odist Episcopal Church, South; the American Bap tist Home Missionary Society; the Congregational|
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In Porto Rico the Protestant Episcopal Church was already in the field, with a small chapel for the English-speaking residents, and they at once extended their work to reach the other races also. Other organizations are the American Missionary Association; the American Baptist Home Missionary Society; the Presbyterian Church in the U. S.A.;
the United Brethren; the General 14. Porto Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Rico. Church; the Methodist EpiscopalChurch; the Christian Woman's Board of Missions; the Seventh Day Adventists; and the Christian and Missionary Alliance. As the work developed, some plan of cooperation became necessary, and in 1902 representatives of the various missionary organizations met at Cienfuegos in Cuba to consider the question of comity. The Episcopal Church had already made the island a missionary diocese with a resident bishop, but the other communions decided that cities of 6,000 or more inhabitants should be open to all, while the rest of the island was divided among them, each denomination to care for a certain district, so that there should be no overlapping or friction, and give the best result. This division of the field had already been made in Porto Rico, and in both islands there was the most cordial cooperation among the various religious bodies at work. Centuries of Roman Catholic teaching made the task of the Protestant missionaries most difficult. The work was begun vigorously, however, largely along evangelistic lines, though educational and theological institutions for the training of leaders for the churches were at once planned. The multiplication of schools under government and independent auspices; the establishment of hospitals and dispensaries; and, above all, the services of the Christian minister, freely given, not only in solemnizing marriages and in the other sacraments of the Church, but in all lines of Christian activities, are slowly solving the problems of these islands. One happy result of the work of the Protestant missionaries has been to arouse the Roman Catholics to greater activity and new methods, and the once dormant though dominant church is establishing schools and colleges, and doing its share in the uplift of the people.
Bahama Islands: 7 societies; 37 missionaries; 266 helpers and pastors; 10 stations; 134 substations; 2 churches; 19,182 communicants; contributions, $4,622.
Cuba: 16 societies; 142 missionaries; 137 helpers and pastors; 50 stations; 176 substations; 118
churches; 9,173 communicants; con- is. Static- tributiona, $22,485. tical Porto Rico: 15 societies; 167 mis- Summary. sionaries; 200 helpers and pastors;52 stations; 274 substations; 120 churches, and 9,692 communicants; contributions, $3,777.
Haiti and Santo Domingo: 9 societies; 17 missionaries; 139 helpers and pastors; 21 stations; 41
substations; 4 churches; 2,706 communicants; contributions, $1,635.
Jamaica: 18 societies; 257 missionaries; 1,852 helpers and pastors; 277 stations; 426 substations; 384 churches; 138,333 communicants; contributions, $174,057.
Lesser Antilles: 14 societies; 186 missionaries; 977 helpers and pastors; 54 stations; 189 substations; 104 church; 80,787 communicants; contributions, $79,193.
Total for the group: 806 missionaries; 3,571 helpers and pastors; 464 stations; 1,240 substations; 732 churches; 259,873 communicants; contributions, $285,769.
Bibliography: Works of a general nature are: J. de Acosta,
Natural and Moral Hist. of the Went Indies, London, 1880; C. H. Eden, The West Indies, ib. 1881; W. Moister, The West Indies, Enslaved and Free, ib. 1883; J. A. Fronde, The English in the West Indies, ib. 1888; C. E. Taylor, Leaflets from the Danish West Indies, ib. 1888; A. M. Kollewijn, Geaehiedereia -van Nederdandach Weal-lndie, Amersfoot, 1887; O. T. Bulkeley, The Lesser Antilles, London, 1889; C. W. Eves, The West Indies, ib. 1889; H. V. F. Bronkhurst, Geography o! the West India Islands, Demernm,1890; L. Beam, Two Years in the French West Indies, London, 1890; C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography o! the British Colonies, vol. ii., The West Indies, Oxford, 1894; J. Rodway, The Wed Indies, New York, 1896; L. Peftrand, L'Eackmape aus Antilles lrarvaisea avant 1789, Paris, 1897; R. T. Hill, Cuba and Porto Rico, with the other Islands o! the bleat Indies, New York, 1898; L. Llor_ns Torres, Am6riea. Estudios hiat6ricoa y fdologicaa, Madrid, 1898; A. K. Fiske, The West Indies: a Hist. o! the Islands o! the West Indian Archipelago, New York, 1899; M. Halstead, Hist. of American Expansion and the Story o! our - Possessions, ib. 1899: M. A. Hamm, Porto Rico and the West Indies, London, 1899; C. S. Walton, The Civil Law in Spain and Spanish-America incladang Puerto Rico, Washington, D. C., 1900; A Lid o! Books on the Danish West Indies, Congress Library, Washington, D. C., 1901; J. de Dampierre, Eeaai sur les sources de l'histoire des Antilles lrart~!aises, 1 x,9,8-IBB4, Paris, 1904; F. Dodsworth, The Book of the West Indies, London, 1904; H. H. van Idol, Naar de Ankdllen en Venezuela, Leyden, 1904; F. A. Ober, Our Went Indian Neighbors, New York, 1904; idem, Guide to the bleat Indies, ib. 1908; G. Weggener, Reiaea im Weatiredis;laers Mittelmeer, Berlin, 1904; J. Henderson, The West Indies, London, 1905, new ed., New York, 1909.
On separate parts of the West Indies: J. H. Stark, H%st, and Guide W the Bahama Islands, Boston, 1891; G. Lester. In Sunny Isles: Chapters treating chiefly o! the Bahama Islands, London, 1897; The Bahama Islands, ed. G. B. Shattuck, New York, 1905; N. D. Davis, Cavaliersand Roundheads in Barbadoes, ib 1888; J. Y. Edghill, About Barbados, London, 1890; J. H. Stark, Hind. and Guide to Barbados, Baton, 1893; A. Baehiller y Morales, Cuba: Mouografta hsatorica, Havana, 1883; F. Vidal y Carets, Eatudio de las razaa humarras que kan ido pablaudo sueea%vamente la Ida de Cuba, Madrid, 1897; I. E. Canini, Four Centuries o! Spanish Rule in Cuba, Chicago, 1898; R. Davey, Cuba, Past and Present, London, 1898; F. Matthews, The New-born Cuba, New York, 1$99; E. Aubert, Les nouvellea Ameriques. Cuba, etc., Paris, 1901; H. Gannett, A Gazetteer of Cuba, Washington, D. C., 1902; H. H. s. Aims, Hist. olSdaaery in Cuba, 1611-1888, New York, 1907; I. A. Wright, Cuba, ib. 1910; Sir.S. St. John, Hayti or the Black Republic, London, 1889; E. M. Bacon and E. M. Aaron, The New Jamaica, New York, 1890; F. Cundall, Bn3liotheca Jamaicenaia, ib. 1895; J. H. Stark, Jnmaiea Guide, Boston. 1898; B. P. Burry, Jamaica as it is, 1903, London, 1903; F. Dodsworth, The Book of Jamaica, Kingston, 1904; W. J. Gardner, Hist. olJama%cn, new ed., New York, 1909; A. D. Ran, Porto Rico, New York, 1898; A. G. Robinson, Porto Rico o! To-day, ib. 1899; R. A. van bliddeIdyk, The History of Puerto Rite, ib. 1903; S. Bran, Haatoria de Puerto Rico, ib. 1904; L. S. Rowe, The United States and Porto Rico, ib. 1904; S. Hazard, Santo Domingo, Past and Present, London, 1873; D.
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Specifically on the religious aide are: H. B. Foster, Wesleyan-Methodism in Jamaica, London, 1881; W. Carlile, Thirty-eight Years' Mission Life in Jamaica, ib. 1884; E. Nuttall, The Churchman's Manual, Jamaica, 1893; J. B. Ellis, Hist. of the Church of England in Jamaica, Kingston, 1891; A. Caldecott, The Church in the West Indies, London, 1898. Consult also the more general literature under Missions.
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