WANDERING IN THE WILDERNESS.

The Basal Narratives (§ 1).

Methods of Studying the Narratives (§ 2).

The Four Main Narratives (§ 3).

Sustenance of the People. Other Tribes (§ 4).

Place Names (§ 5).

Chronology and the Route (§ 6).

The accounts of the wandering of the Hebrews in the desert are contained principally in the books of Exodus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Ex. xv. 22 tells of the start from the Red Sea, and xix. 1 of the arrival at Sinai; then the narrative of the wandering is interrupted by the collections of laws; except for the golden calf episode in Ex.

r. The Basal xxxii.-xxxiii., but is taken up and con

Narratives. tinned in Num. x. 11-xiv., xvi.-xvii.,

xx.-xxi.; xxii.1 states the arrival in the territory of Moab, and Num. xxxiii. contains a statement of the stations of the journey from

Rameses in Egypt to the plains of Moab. Further, in Deut. i. 6-ii. 24 is a resume of the events occurring on the march from Horeb to the Arnon,

while x. 6-9 reviews a fragment of the journey and the separation of the Levites. Outside the Penta teuch are only short references to the wandering

(Josh. xxiv. 7-8; Judges xi. 1fr17; in the prophetical books and the Psalms, particularly Ps. Lexviii.), which, however, in the main depend upon the accounts in the Pentateuch but present some singu larities. In its present form the Pentateuch contains about fifteen narratives of events during the wan dering, excluding parallels, eleven of which deal with the mutiny of the people against Moses or

Yahweh, in eight cases punishment follows, in four cases the murmuring ends in gifts from Yahweh; two accounts of successful war occur (Ex. xvii. 8-16; Num. xxi. 1-3). Deuteronomy views the events of the journey from the point of view of education; Amos regards the period as one of especial favor from Yahweh; Hoses dates rebel lion of the people from the entrance into Canaan, as does Jeremiah; , Ezekiel sees in the whole history of Israeli including the desert period, only disregard of Yahweh, which view governs the later historians of Israel, and so they account for the destruction of the

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generation of Moses and Aaron in the wilderness. Some of the accounts suggest that other narratives than those now extant were in the possession of the Hebrews and emphasized Yahweh's providence (so Deut. viii., xxix.; Jer. ii.; Judges v. 11); the account of a holy war appears only in Ex. xvii. 8-16; Num. xxi. 1-3; but this idea influenced mightily the early religion of Israel.

It has long been the custom, and this custom is still followed in part, to employ these sources, as well as accounts in early and late literature of places and names, partly in a harmonistic method, using historical, geographical, and etymological learning, as

though the tracing of the journeyings z. Methods presented no difficulties of moment, es-

of Study- pecially since no good maps of the reing the gion existed. Matters which were by

Narratives. no means certain were taken as proved

(e.g., the situation of Sinai), and without making clear the details of the journeying, by seizing now upon this and now upon that name which sounded like the Biblical name in the narrative, the material was used as if elastic to produce what was hoped to be a satisfying result; the processes of literary and textual criticism not being employed. Indeed, the question was not squarely met whether the conditions for the wandering of so numerous a people with all their possessions really existed. The newer method is to take account of the various threads and sources, to investigate the character of each, to take into consideration investigations into the natural conditions presented by the region, and so to reach conclusions which satisfactorily meet the case.

The account of J involves great difficulties. Moses, according to this narrator, led the people from the Red Sea to the wilderness of Shur, where they were three days without water (Ex. xv. 22); the Marsh and Elim episodes are by E (Ex. xv. 23-27). J tells in Ex. xvi. of the gift of manna, in xvii. of the murmuring against Moses at Meribah, and in xxxiii. 1 sqq. of the command to leave Sinai; Num. x. 29-32

deals with the relations with Hobab the 3. The Midianite as guide, Num. xi. gives the

Four Main episode of the quails and the journey to Narratives. Hazeroth and to Paran (xii. 16). From

Kadesh (?) Moses sent out the spies, among them Caleb, who report the land as fruitful but impossible to take into possession (Num. xiii.), so that the people desire to return to Egypt (xiv. 3). The further course of the narrative of J is not clear. Num. xvi. tells of the rebellion of Dathan and Abiram, and xxi. 1-3 of the ban of the city of Hormah. After that comes the capture of the fortified cities east of the Jordan. E is somewhat clearer in his narrative. In Ex. xvii. 8-16 is recounted the victory over Amalek, in chap. xviii. the advice of Jethro to appoint judges; in Ex. xxxiii. 1 sqq. the command to leave Horeb is regarded as punishment for the worship of the golden calf, but the ark shows the way (Num. x. 33-36); Num. xi. 1-3 tells of the fire from Yahweh which destroyed some of the people, and other verses of the chapter deal with the seventy elders; in chap. xi. Miriam's leprosy is accounted for; Num. xiii. 26 tells that from Kadesh Moses sent spies, and Caleb alone entreats the people to trust

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Yahweh (xiv. 8-9); in xiv. 25 the people are commanded to return into the wilderness, while the people were defeated in their attempt on Canaan; Num. xx. lb shows the people again in Kadesh, where Miriam died, after which the people go by way of Edom to the Arnon (Num. xx. 14-21, xxi. 4-9, 12-20). The Deuteronomist (i. 6-ii. 25) gives a short review of the course from Horeb to the Arnon, and (ix. 22) recalls Taberah, Massah, and Kibroth-hattaavah. The indications of the narrative of P are clearer. From Elim "all the congregation" went into the wilderness of Sin (Ex. xvi. l), and when hunger assailed the people manna and quails were sent them, thence by way of Rephidim they passed to the wilderness of Sinai (Ex. xvii. 1, six. 1), the separate stations not being named. After the giving of the law, they depart from the wilderness of Sinai, and twelve spies are sent forth, go from the wilderness of Sin, swing northward by way of the entrance to Hamath, and after forty days return to the wilderness of Paran. At their report the assembly expresses its disappointment in an outbreak against Moses and Aaron. The next rebellion is that of Korah against the exclusive priesthood of the Levites, whose right is vindicated by a miracle of destruction and the budding of Aaron's rod (Num. xvi.-xvii.). In the wilderness of Sin the people murmur against the leaders because of lack of water, which is brought them from the rock (Meribah), and thence they proceed to Hor, where Aaron dies (Num. xx.), and to the territory opposite Jericho (Num. xxi.). The omission of the stages of the journey is supplied by Nun. xxxiii., which purports to be by Moses (verse 2), and, apart from the starting-point and finish, contains the names of forty places, corresponding to the forty years of the wandering, but twenty-two of these are new and do not appear elsewhere in the Pentateuch. Examination shows that the author of this chapter has used the Pentateuch in practically its present form, hence the chapter is one of the latest in the Pentateuch. It appears to be the work of a Jew of Jerusalem of the end of the fifth pre-Christian century, who used not only the Pentateuch but other sources, involving the journey of others or of himself in that region; and into his account insertions appear to have been made. The wandering according to this chapter appears in four stages: From Rameses to Sinai (3-15); from Sinai to Bene-jaakan (16-30a, 36b-41a, 30a-31); thence south to Ezion-gaber (32-35); and thence north by way of the Wadi `Arabah to Abel-shittim in Moab (36a, 41b-49). From the dating given above, it follows that among the sources this piece takes not the first but the last place among the data for determining the course of the wandering. The attempt must fail which aims to show that a difference among the narrators reflects itself here; that in the first part of the catalogue of stations the ideas of P and J are followed in that the Hebrews went in a northeasterly direction to Moab, while in the second part the notion of E and D is reproduced, viz., that they went by a circuit which took them first southeastward by Ezion-gaber. The many new place names stand in the way of reconciliation; moreover, of the forty or more names only about one-fourth may with greater or less probabil-

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ity be located, and these do not suffice to guide one on the way the Hebrews took. Moreover, since the number forty is there, not much room probably is left for additions or subtractions (by later editors). The four narratives are not of equal value. That of P is the latest; in this, e.g., Joshua represents the tribe of Ephraim, in E he is the servant of Moses; so Caleb represents Judah, while before the exile he stood out as still an independent tribe. D depends upon JE; while J and E are the earliest sources.

A series of narratives naturally deal with the matter of the sustenance of the people in the desert; it was early recognized that for the assumed two millions this was a difficult problem.

The solution was by miracle God gave them water, bread, and meat. Yet the natural situation was kept in mind. Water was alleged

4. Suste- to be given only where it later existed. nance of Manna is known, even by modern

the People. Arabs, as the sweet exudation of the Other Tamarix mannifera, which when perTribes. forated by an insect (coccus manniparus) gives forth a sort of gum in drops, which may be collected before the sun causes it to melt (cf. Ex. xvi. 21). These and other narrated facts, as its sweet taste, are in accordance with those observable. On the other hand, some details are rather poetical (Num. xi. 8). Similarly quails are in that region numerous, both as migratory and also as breeding there. Moreover, they do not fly high, especially when fatigued, and may be caught with the hand. An Arab writer of the tenth century speaks of the numbers of quails and says that the flesh often induces illness (cf. Num. xi. 33). In this way the nature of the wilderness and of the life there is accurately reproduced in many particulars in the narratives. Other details have to do with the peoples of other tribes with whom dealing was had. If Num. x. 29-32 originally spoke of Kenites (not Midianites), it leads to the conclusion that the Kenitea went with the Hebrews to Canaan (cf. Judges i. 16, iv. 11; I Sam. xv. 6). The war with the Amalekites at Rephidim (Ex. xvii. 8-16) may be put in connection with Massa and Meribah (=Kadesh; cf. verses 2-7); but of the situation of Rephidim apart from this nothing certain is known, nor of the place of the altar of verse 15. The kernel and occasion of Num. xiii.-xiv. is discernible as coming from the history of the Calebite stem as dwelling near Hebron; this narrative explains the connection of the stock with Israel by its obedience to Yahweh. The narrative concerning Hormah and the former name Zephat is etymologically clear, since Hormah is connected with the Hebr. herein, " ban "; but the historical content is put in question. In an entirely different class are Ex. xviii.; Num. xi. 14, 16-17, 24b-30, which deal with the selection of laymen as judges and aids in leading the people. Num. xi. places them in a grade lower than Moses, possessing only a part of the divine spirit which rested upon him; Ex. xviii. makes Jethro the teacher of Moses in this matter. Some of the stories are closely connected with the cultus (Ex. xvii. 8-16; Num, xxi. 4-9; cf. II Kings xviii. 4). Other passages deal with etymological explanations of place names (Marsh, Ex. xv. 23; Massah and Meribah, Ex.

xvii. 7: Taberah, Num. xi. 1-3; and $ormah, ut sup.). The narratives are partly etiological, partly etymological, and partly popular renarration of historical recollections from various standpoints, some also having their point of departure in pedagogical purpose (so the Korah narrative in its' relation to priestly precedence, Num. xvi.). Complicating the discussion is the fact that the subject is the people of Israel as a whole as having the desert experience, though nationality was attained first in Canaan and only little tribes or stocks collected about Moses, with their possessions of flocks lingering where water permitted.

The names of places finding mention in the older narratives and in P are few-chiefly on the Egyptian border and in Edom and Moab. Stretches of territory were often named from adjacent places (e.g., the wilderness of Shur, Ex. xv. 22, from Shur, cf.

Gen. xvi. 7, or perhaps from an Egyp- g. Place tian border fortress Tarn). Some ex- Names. plain Elim (Ex. xv. 27) by referring to

Phoinikon, a place of worship rich in springs named by Agatharchides (150 a.c.), and putting it into connection with the gods (Elim) of the place, while Marsh (Ex. xv. 23) is derived from the name of the Maraniten, a tribe which held possession. A later identification is with 'Ain Hawara in the wadi of that name, and of Elim with the Wadi Gharandel two hours south. The wilderness of Sin (Ex. xvi. 1), which has nothing to do with the deity of that name, is to be located east and northeast of the present Ismailiyeh; according to Ezek. xxx. 15, Sin was the name of a fortress on the northern boundary of Egypt. Of the places in the desert Kadesh is known with certainty (see Negeb). It figures strongly in all the sources, and it is possible that Massah is the notable spring 'Ain al-Kaderat, not far from Kadesh. The war with the Amalekitea and the meeting with Jethro point to Kadesh. It has long been noticed that in the present accounts Kadesh was a station of the Israelites both before and after the giving of the law, and this probably embodies the correct historical tradition; indeed, this place may have been the objective of the march from Egypt, since it must have been known by the nomads for its abundant water supply. It is never reported that water was found at Sinai or Horeb, and a long stay there is not to be supposed. The natural situation implies that Israel stayed long in Kadesh but it is not expressly stated in the older narratives, though it may be read between the lines. The location of the giving of the law might be conjectured for this neighborhood (cf. Judges v. 4), in accordance with the general situation, but this is obscured by the intimations regarding the law as given on Sinai or Horeb. What is in the foreground is the long halt at Kadesh, and this alone offers a reasonable ground upon which to construct the history of this period and of the founding of the religion. Taberah and Kibroth-hattaavah (Num. xi. 3, 34) were possibly not far from Kadesh, as was also Hazeroth (xi. 35), "courts, enclosures." Paran (q.v.), as represented, seems to have been more frequented by the Israelites than Kadesh, but this can hardly be historical. Hormah, to be distinguished from the place of that name in the Negeb (q.v.), is

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located by Palmer at al-Z, ebeta, by Robinson at alZ, afa on the border of Edom. The wilderness of Sin lay south of Kadesh, between it and the wilderness of Paran. The latter is made by the narratives the place of the long wandering, and is to be sought west of the Edomitic boundary. Of the period spent there hardly anything is known-there was placed the rebellion of Korah. In the later conceptions of the Hebrews, the double halt of their forefathers at Kadeah was the fast fact. Mount Hor, where Aaron died (Num. xx. 22-29), is, according to the context, to be sought not far from Kadesh, and not in the neighborhood of Petra; Deut. x. 6 sqq. puts his death at Moaera, which may possibly be Jebel Madara, northeast from Kadesh. Oboth (Num. xxi. 10-11, xxxiii. 43) is located by Wetzstein at the watering=places 'Ain al-Webe on the western slope of Wadi `Arabah south of the Dead Sea; but Num. xxxiii. 43 places it near Phunon (Khirbet Fenan), on the opposite side of the wadi. The location is not certain, but both supposed sites indicate passage through the wadi. Ije-abarim (Num. xxi. 11, xxxiii. 44-45) shows the people already in Moab; it may correspond to Khirbet `Aij, between Katrabba (Kafrabba) and el-Kerak.

Bound up in the texture of the narrative of P is a chronology which makes frequent mention of forty years. This period as the length of the wandering is surely older than the -age of the au 6. Chronol- thor of this document, appearing in E ogy and the and D (Josh. xiv. 7, 10; Deut. viii.

Route. 2, 4). In the present text this period is reckoned in various ways; from the march from Kadeah to the end of the desert (Num. xiv. 33, xxxiii. 38); or from the departure from Egypt (Ex. xii. 2 sqq., xvi. 1, xl. 1, 17; Num. x. 11; Deut. i. 3), which would make the period from the leaving of Kadeah thirty-eight years. Sometimes the reckoning is not completed, perhaps because it did not agree with other data (Ex. xix. 1; Num. xx. 1), but perhaps because the reckoning of forty years was a later conception. This conception is worked out into a schematic (i.e., unhistorical) form in Num. xxxiii., making the stations impliedly agree with the number of the years of the wandering. Of the events of these years little is known; the rebellion of Korah, the opening of the springs at Kadeah, and the death of Aaron are all. This lack of material best fits in with the supposition that the forty years were not in the original tradition. As to E and D it is to be noted that the former (Ex. xiii. 17 sqq.) declares that God did not lead the people by the way of the Philistines, but by the way of the Red Sea (q.v.); the other reports of the wandering are given in Deut. i.-ii. The road to the "mountain of the Amorites" (Deut. i. 19) leads out of the desert south of the Negeb, out of the desert of Paran, to the north via Kadesh toward Beersheba and Hebron. The way to the Red Sea (i. 40, ii. 1) led from Kadesh through the desert to Elath. The "way of the plain" (ii. 8) leads (verses 3-4) north through the region of the Edomites. Thence the march was eastward or northeastward after leaving the Wadi `Arabah to the wilderness of Moab and the brook Ze>'ed (verse 13). See Israel, History of,I., § 4.

(H. Guthe.)

Bibliography: E. Naville, in the Memoirs of the Egypt Exploration Fund, Nos. 1, 3, for 1883-84; C. Forster, Israel in the Wilderness, London, 1865; W. H. Bartr lett, Forty Days %n the Desert on the Track of the Israelites, new ed., London, 1887; E. H. Palmer, The Desert of the Exodus, part ii., chaps. 1-5, 2 vols., London, 1871; S. C. Bartlett, From Egypt to Palestine through Sinai, the Wilderness, arid the South Country, New York, 1879; G. Ebexs, Durch Goseu zum Sinai, Leipsic, 1881; H. C. Trumbull, %adesh-Barnes, New York and London, 1884; M. J. Lagrange, in Revue bs'blique, is (1900), 86 sqq., 286 sqq., 447 sqq.; C. Steuexuagel, E%nwanderung der %sraelitsschen Sthmme, Leipsic, 1900; E. Meyer, D%e Israeliten and Are Nachbarstamme, pp. 1 sqq., Halle, 1906; Bonhoff, in TS%, 1907, pp. 159 sqq.; A. Musil, Arabia Petraia (text), vols. i.-ii., Vienna, 1907-1908; O. A. Toffteen, Researches in Biblical Archeology, vol. ii., The Historic Exodus, Chicago, 1909; L. Schneller, Durchdie Witstezum Sinn%. In Moses Spuren vom Schilfmeer bis zum Nebo, Leipsic, 1909; EB, iv. 5256-61; JE, zii. 520-521; the literature under Sxxex, and the commentaries on the Biblical books named in the text.