Valentinus and His School

VALENTINUS AND HIS SCHOOL. According to Irenmus (5 1). Heradeon (§ J

According to Hippolytus (§ 2).
Marcus (§ 8).

$ecundus: Ptolemy (§ 3). Colorliasus (§ 7)._ The Fall and Redemption According I. Valentines.

Life and Works (§ 1).
Doctrines (§ 2).

11. The Valentinians. to Ptolemy (§ 4).

L Valeatinus: The events of the life of Valentines, the most important of the Gnostic teachers, are little known. According to an ancient document cited by Irenaeus and preserved by :. Life and Eusebius (Hist. eccl., IV., xi. 1), he

Works. came to Rome during the pontificate of Hyginus; developed his chief activ-, ity under Pius; and remained at Rome until the pontificate of Anicetus, thus placing his sojourn at Rome about 136-165. Tertullian (Adversus Valentinus, iv.; cf. De praescriptione, xxx.) makes him the victim of disappointed ambition for the throne of St. Peter, a martyrius (confessor) being preferred to him. The only predecessor of Anicetus who was a confessor was Telesphorus, but during his pon tificate Valentines was not at Rome,' and Tertul lian's statement remains of little value. Clement of Alexandria (Strom., VII., xvii. 106-107) essen tially accords with Irenaeua, placing the activity of Basilides (q.v.), Valentines, and Marcion (q.v.) in the period of 120-160. Epiphanies (Hist. eccl., xxxi.) adds that he had heard that the home of Valentines was in the Phrebonite coastland of Egypt; and that he had been educated in Alexan dria, whence he had gone to Rome to disseminate his teachings. Thence he had gone to Cyprus, where he had lapsed from the faith. The last part of this statement is contradicted by the more prob able report of Tertullian and.Irenaeus that this took place already at Rome. Statements of the oppo nents of Valentines imply that he wrote only occa sional treatises. The only work evidently dogmatic as shown by its title was "On the Three Natures," a fragment of which may be that preserved by Pho ties (Bibliotheca, ecxxx.). All the other known writings of Yalentinus were of a practical character; sermons, hymns, and letters. Fragments of the sermons are preserved by Clement of Alexandria (see below), who has also transmitted fragments of three letters (see below). Tertullian ranked his psalms with those of David (De carne Christi, xvii., xx.), a few of which are cited by Hippolytus (Phi losophumena, VI., =vii. 290). Perhaps the newly recovered Odes of Solomon (see Solomon, Odes of) are Valentinian.

The teachings of Yalentinus are known only as represented by his opponents where they are scarcely distinguished from those of his pupils. Evidently his doctrines sprang from the soil

a: Doc- of Hellenistic syncretism, and their trines. ultimate basis was Platonic dualism, which separated the divine world of ideas from the material world of phenomena. In the intermediate abyss stands man partaking of both and the problem is how to bridge the chasm so as to attain the higher goal and be released from the material. The cosmos is the imperfect image of the eon, the ideal prototype, and the creator of the cosmos is the demiurge, who is termed God and Father, and is an image of the true God. According

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formed the fountain of his doctrine. From these fragments no coherent presentation of the system of Valentinus can be constructed, and they are rendered the more difficult since they have been set in a new context and overladen with the exegesis of the later Valentinian school; nor is it even known whether they are especially characteristic of the heresiarch's teachings.

II. The Valentinians: The description of Valentinianism as given by Irenaeus (Hær., L, xi. 1; Eng. transl., ANF, i. 332) can scarcely represent the teachings of its founder, corresponding in no points with his authenticated statements: Accordng to this, the system was a genealogy of eons. At the head was a dyad, "the Ineffable" z. According and "Silence," from whom emanated to Irenæus. a second dyad, "the Father" and "Truth." From this tetrad proceeded " Logos " and " Life," and, again, " Man " and "Church." These four pairs form the first octad. Ten "powers" emanate from the Logos and " Life," and twelve from " Man " and " Church." This mysticism is clearly a play on the number thirty, the number of the days in the Egyptian month. One of the twelve emanations fell and separated, and from her proceeded the further work of creation. She separated by a first boundary the abyss, or highest ground of the universe, where dwells the unbegotten Father, from the pleroma, where are the begotten eons. A second boundary separates the "Mother" from the pleroma. Christ was no emanation of the eons, but was born of the mother, .remembering the pleroma, by a shadow, but since he was male, he cast the shadow from him and returned to the pleroma. "Mother," deprived of her spiritual potency, remained with the shadow, and now brought forth " Demiurge," or the " Almighty," and with him " Left-Hand Archon." Jesus is regarded sometimes as, an emanation of Theletos, he "who was separated from their mother and united to the rest" (cf. ANF, i. 332); sometimes of Christ; . and sometimes of the syzygy, " Man " and " Church." The Holy Ghost is an emanation of "Truth" (Epiphanius reads " Church "), and his work is the proving and fertilizing of, the eons whom he enters unperceived, so that they bring forth fruits of truth. This description is closely paralleled by one found in a letter of unknown origin, reported by Epiphanius (Htur., xxxi. 5-G).

Far different is the account of Valentinianism given by Hippolytus (Philosophumena, vi. 29 sqq.), who repeatedly alludes to the doctrinal divergencies of individual teachers of the school. At the head he places the " monad," or " father," z. According non-sexual, inconceivable, the ulti- to Hip- mate cause of all being: Originally polytus. self-sufficient and alone, but not loving solitude, and having the power of generation, this "monad" was led to create an ob ject of affection. Thus emanated "Mind" and "Truth," a dyad which became the source of the cons in the pleroma. From this dyad emanated " Logos " and " Life," and from these " Man ." and " Church." " Mind " and " Truth " produced the perfect number ten, in -ten eons; and in imitation of the first dyad the second caused the emanation of twelve eons. Thus there were, in all, twentyeight eons, the number of the days in the lunar month, a fact pointing to the Oriental origin of, this form of the system. The twelfth and last of the eons of the second line was the female, " Wisdom,", who, seeking to imitate the mode of emanation employed by the Father, produced an abortion in the shape of formless matter. This, produced horror and alarm among the eons or the pleroma, and the Father, in, pity, sent them to aid. "Mind" and "Truth" emanated Christ and the Holy Ghost, and this new syzygy separated the abortion of Wisdom from the eons, thus removing the cause of alarm. The Father likewise emanated an eon, "Gross," which marks the limit of the eons (also called " Boundary " or " Participator "), beyond whom is the octad, and "Wisdom" outside the pleroma, whom Christ made a perfect eon. The thirty eons now determined on an emanation of a common progeny of the pleroma to present to the Father, and the result was Jesus. Lower Wisdom wistfully. longed for her authors, Christ and the Holy Ghost. The eons found Jesus to be compassionate, who entered into a syzygy with .lower "Wisdom," and relieved her of her sufferings by converting these into hypostases. From fear, the "psychic being," came the~demiurge; from sorrow came matter; from the disorder of ignorance the demons; and from need sprang repentance and the ascent of the soul. The soul belongs to the middle sphere, under the ogdoad, the heavenly Jerusalem, and above matter. The souls come from the demiurge, who gave them bodies of demonic matter, even as he created the world. The law and the prophets likewise came from him. All the psychic have a veil upon their hearts which blinds them to the higher world of spirits; and when this veil was to be removed, the historic Jesus was born of the Virgin, by the lower wisdom entering and the demiurge overshadowing her. He cures the sufferings of souls, just as Christ healed those of lower wisdom. A similar description is given by Clement of Alexandria (" Extracts from Theodotus," xxix.-xlii.). The Valentinian school later fell into an Oriental and an Italian branch; to the former belonged Axionicus and Bardesanes (q.v.), and to the latter Ptolemy and Heracleon. The Occidental division was so wide-spread in Italy, and southern Gaul that Irenæus first planned his Adversus Hcgreses against the Valentinians alone. the Oriental Valentinians were found especially in Egypt and Syria. By the second half of the fourth century the sect seems to have , been restricted to Egypt, Manicheiam elsewhere absorbing its remnants.

Of the chief followers . of Valentinus, Irenxus mentions Secundus (Hær., L, iii. 2). Philastrius (HtEr., xl.) ascribes to him a docetic Christology which his source, the Syntagrrca of Hippolytus, had assigned to the Valentinians. According to Irenaeus,

Secundus divided the first ogdoad into 3. Secundus; a male and a female tetrad, the former

Ptolemy. being light and the latter darkness;

and he did not reckon the fallen power among the thirty eons but among their fruits, doubtless the higher wisdom. Ptolemy, whose career is

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utterly unknown, was still alive when Irenaeus wrote against the Gnostics (c.180). The only extant fragment of his writings, except for his valuable epistle to Flora (Epiphanius, Hær., xxxiii. 5 sqq.), is a citation from an exegetical work in Ireneeus (L, viii. 5; Eng. transl., ANF, i. 328-329). The epistle to Flora is a reply to a question concerning the origin of the Old-Testament law; and is distinguished for its calm, clear method of proof on a religious basis, as well as a simple theology instead of the abstruse series of eons. While the Church taught that the law came from God the Father and others maintained it to be the work of the devil, Ptolemy held it to be partly from God, partly from Moses, and partly from the Jewish elders. The portion derived from God was subdivided into (1) the pure legislation unmixed with evil and fulfilled by the Savior; (2) the law mixed with evil, as the law of retaliation, destroyed by the Savior; and (3) the typical or symbolical, as the laws on the Sabbath, circumcision, feasts, and fasts, whose literal meaning the Savior abrogated in favor of a spiritual signification. The lawgiver can not be the perfect highest God, nor the devil; but the demiurge. The ultimate reality is the unbegotten unchangeable good principle, essentially immortality and light; simple, absolute, the perfect God, whom the Savior called his Father. Of the two potencies produced by him, the demiurge is also God, but neither good nor evil, but merely just (hating evil). His righteousness. is not perfect, yet he is the image of the perfect God. He created the world in which he exercises his providence, and he gave the law, so far as it was not the work of man. The second potency is the devil, who also is "God," but not to be identified with the demiurge. He is the adversary who creates destruction; his sphere is unrighteousness; his nature darkness and destruction, material and multiform. The problem how the supreme God, capable by his nature to produce only what is like himself, could have created such imperfect beings is left unanswered, partly on account of a breach in the text. Possibly this was conceived as a procession of eons, by self-depotentiation (Harnack). As to soteriology, redemption is given in the Savior, who alone knows the "Father of all." His function was to reveal the Father to man, and through this alone has he enabled man to grasp the mystery of the universe. The Christological formula, " of the same substance with the Father," which triumphed at Nicaea, owes its origin to the Gnostic Ptolemy. Irenaeus, discussing this school at. great length (Hær., L, i.-viii.; Eng. traasl., ANF, i. 316-339), used certain "memoirs," whether by Ptolemy or by one of his pupils is unclear. In the upper world, or pleroma, rule thirty eons. At their head is the source of all being (" Primal Beginning," " Primal Father," " Abyss"), in whom " Consciousness " (also called " Grace " and " Silence ") is immanent. Like a seed he places in "Silence" the concept of causing a beginning of the universe to appear, whereupon she bears " Mind " (or the " Only Begotten," " Father," " Beginning of All "), together with " Truth." These four= `Abyss " and " Silence," " Mind " and " Truth "-form the first tetrad, the source of the universe. The " Only Be-

gotten " emanates as the beginning of the pleroma " Logos" and " Life," and they, in their turn, " Man " and " Church." This is the first ogdoad, which may also be regarded as a tetrad since the pairs may be combined as androgynous. Ten further eons, or five syzygies, emanated from " Logos " and " Life," and twelve from " Man " and " Church," the last being °` Wisdom." The first emanation, the "Only Begotten," alone was able to comprehend the "Primal Father," who was to impart this to the other eons; but "Wisdom," seized by a passionate desire to comprehend the " Father," would have been absorbed by his sweetness had she not been checked by " Boundary," which watches over all outside the indescribable magnitude of God. To prevent a repetition of this, "Only Begotten" emanated another sysygy, Christ and the Holy Ghost, who complete the number of the eons. In thankfulness for the instruction given them by this syzygy, the eons resolved to collect their best, and thus arose Jesus (" Savior," "Christ," " Logos," '· The All").

The drama of the fall opens with "Thought" ('Enthymeeis), which, as the determination to penetrate the depths of the Father, parted 4. The Fall from " Wisdom "and is now hyposta-

and Re- tined. This is also called 'Achamoth demption (Hebr. abstract plural, hokhmoth, According " wisdom "), and had sunk with the to Ptolemy. " passion " she had evoked in " Wisdom," from the pleroma into the "void," without form or figure, like an untimely birth. Christ took pity on her and gave her a substantial, although not an intellectual form. She, retaining an "odor of immortality," still longs for the pleroma and the light of "Logos," which she strains to reach, only to be checked by "Boundary," throwing her into passion, fear, and ignorance: Nevertheless, from her desire toward her creator originate the orderly arrangement of the world, and the souls; while from the aggregate of passions came the substance of matter. From the soul-material 'Achamoth forms the demiurge, who, in virtue of 'enthymesis, creates likenesses of the eons. Thus arise seven heavens or angels, over whom is the demiurge, and above him 'AchamBth, thus affording a copy of the heavenly ogdoad. From the Borrow of 'AchamSth, moreover, comes evil which becomes the devil, or "world-ruler," and his evil angels, the demons. Man comes from the demiurge, being formed first of matter and then receiving his psychic element from the creator, finally acquiring his "fleshly mantle." Unknown to the demiurge, 'Achameth placed the pneumatic seed in man, so that he constitutes a trichotomy, as f ollows: matter, which is transitory; the psychic, endowed with free will; and the pneumatic, the, salt and light of the world. No longer combined in one person, these three natures result in three classes of men: the pneumatics, who are worthy of perfection and may share in the pleroma; the psychic or animal, who are mentally swayed between the good and the evil, and if they incline toward the former will attain to the intermediate place; and the material, who perish. Only the psychic need redemption, which is fulfilled by Christ. According

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to some, he had received his material and psychic

side from the demiurge, and his pneumatic elements

from 'Achamoth; and at his baptism the Savior, descending from the pleroma, entered him so that he became a copy of the original tetrad. The

Church, primarily an organization of psychics, is ruled by the demiurge, hence in it there is no per fect gnosis. Perfection will come when all pneu

matic mankind shall possess perfect knowledge of

God and 'AchamaEla, who, accompanied by the pneumatics as angels of light, shall then enter the pleroms as the bride of the Savior. The demiurge

will then go to the intermediate place hitherto occu

pied by 'Achamoth, where the psychics will find rest,

while the material world will be destroyed by fire.

The Yalentinian of whose writings larger fragments have been preserved (through Origen) than of any of his fellows is Heracleon, of whose life and fortunes almost nothing is known, although Clement of Alexandria terms him the most distinguished of

the Yakentinisn school (Strom., IV., ix.

g. Hers- 71). He evidently flourished about cleon. 200, possibly at Rome, as is apparent from certain Latinisms in his works;

and Hippolytus makes him the leader of the Italian

Yakentinians. Origen had "notes" by him in which passages of the Gospel of John were briefly explained. According to Heracleon, God, as a pure

and invisible spirit, can be honored only spiritually.

His counterpart is the material, destructive, de

monic principle that has only desires, not will.

Between the'two spheres is the soul, which is not immortal, but is capable of salvation. It comes from the demiurge, and is distinct from the pneu

matic seed. The "pneumatics," essentially akin

to God, are the "elect," led by the Logos to the highest wisdom, and destined to salvation. The psychics can perceive only through the senses, and may lx convinced only by miracle, and can attain no more than right faith; and material men, or

hylica, have lost their relation with God. The

"Savior," the image of the pleromatic Christ, orig

inated all the cosmos (not the eons). He proceeded

from the "majesty" and became incarnate, his superiority being proclaimed by John the Baptist, the representative of the demiurge. He advanced from the uttermost ends of hylic world, where he neither wrought nor spoke, to the psychic realm, where, through the power of the Holy Ghost, he banished evil and put it to flight by the cross. The demiurge is s subordinate prince ruling over the comparatively small domain of the middle, or psy chic, realm. To this comes the Savior, who for gives those who live in ignorance and sin contrary to their true nature, while those who will not thus be led to fellowship with God fall under the judgment of the demiurge, or executioner. The souls form syzygies, each with its reaping angel, the end

in view being the union of all "pneumatic natures"

with the "pneumatic Church," which constitutes a syzygy with the Savior. Judaism, like the world, was the work of the demiurge, as was the law, which results in death as annihilation for sin. The fragments of Heracleon are especially important as

showing how small a factor the speculation concern

ing - practically was, though such was tacitly

presupposed. What is vital to Ptolemy and Heracleon is the ascent of the soul to the pleroma, and it is clear that their interest was primarily ethical and religious.

Marcus was apparently a contemporary of Irenaeus (L, sill. 5; ANF, i. 335), and developed his activ ity in Asia Minor; though his pupils came to the West and spread his teachings as far as Gaul. Irenæus used writings of Marcus, without mentioning their titles, and Clement of Alexandria seems to have known and utilized some (Strom., 6. Marcus. VI., xvi. 140-141). Irenaeus likewise expressly states that the sect had a number of apocryphal writings, which they fabri cated themselves (L, xx. 1). Close similarity of the system of Marcus to that of the school will save a detailed analysis. Neopythagorean influence and the widely prevalent juggling with numbers and letters are prominent. More important are excerpts from the liturgy of Marcus, which give a glimpse into the sacramental doctrines of the sect (L, xxi.). According to them, baptism by water had only psy chic power, the perfect capability of entering the pleroma requiring "redemption," a. fact too in tangible to be described. Many of the sect were accustomed to construct a bridal chamber in which the mystic marriage of the soul took place. Others performed baptism with.such phrases as: " In the name of the unknowable Father of all, in Trutli the mother of all, in him who descended on Jesus, in the union, redemption, and communion of the powers," or the Aramaic: " in the name of 'Achamoth, be immersed "; again:" The name hid from all divinity and dominion and truth, which Jesus the Nazarene put on in the zones of light, Christ the lord of him who liveth through the Holy Ghost, to angelic redemption." After suitable re sponses, anointing with oil of balsam followed. Sometimes the immersion was omitted, and the candidate, with similar invocations, was simply an ointed with water and oil together. Others still re jected all sacramental forms, holding it to be impious to attempt to represent the ineffable and incon ceivable. The gnosis was perfect salvation, which was restricted to the pneumatic man, and there was also a salvation of the did. With proper invocations, the head of the deceased was anointed with water and oil, or simply with oil of balsam; so that the inner man, unseen by the demons, might arise and the soul pass to the demiurge. One elaborate mystical formula made progress possible through the realm of angels, and another through the realm of the demiurge; while another prayer was addressed to the higher wisdom, who withdrew the pneumatic man from the judge (the demiurge). The celebration of the Eucharist resolved itself into a magical jugglery. According to Irenaeus, who may have given a one-sided, colored effect, when the mysta gogue pronounced the prayer of thanksgiving over the chalice of mixed wine, and extended the epi clesis, the ordinary wine changed to red. This was represented to mean that the "higher Grace" had dropped some of her blood into the chalice that the communicants should rejoice to partake of her. Again, Marcus gave the chalice to the assisting prophets, who made the prayer of thanksgiving.

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He himself took s larger.cup, in which he poured the contents of the smaller. He then invoked Grace, whereupon the cup overflowed -through the influx of Grace. Marcus felt himself to be a prophet and believed himself to be able to communicate his powers to others, the ritual being given by Irenæus (L, xiii. 3); and he likewise solicited the services of women of position and wealth as prophetesses, with high-sounding declamations. Despite the fantastic speculations. of Marcus, his religious ear nestness is unmistakable, and his prayers show that his central thought was to raise the inner man to the pleroms, not. by mystic plunging into depths possible only to the pneumatic, but by turning away from the material and evil world. The history of the Valentinian Colorbasus is wrapped in obscurity. In referring to him, Epi phanius (Hær., .xxxv.) merely repeats comments of Irenæus on the school of Marcus without mentioning to what branch of the school his remarks apply; and Theodoret (Hteret4,carum fabttlarum, i. 12) gives an excerpt from the results of Epi q. Color- phanius. Philaster (Hær., xliii.) con basus. tents himself with saying that Color basus "likewise declared that the life and generation of all men consist in letters and in the number of the elements and of the seven stars." The source of all information on Colorbasus is ap parently the problematical Hær., L, xiv. 1, of Ire neeus, according to which Marcus declared himself to be " the matrix and receptacle of the Silence of Colorbasus." This may have been a technical ex pression of the school which is not mentioned else where. Attempts have been made to explain it as representing the Hebr. kol 'arba', or "all four" (Heumann); or, Pl 'arba`, or " voice of four (F. C. Bsur), in allusion to the higher tetrad, with out, however, any further support. That Color basus was the name of a historic personage is an unquestioned possibility; for the name Kolorbasios occurs elsewhere (A. Hilgenfeld). With all its variations Valentinian Gnosticism is in great part founded on Platonism as understood by later generations. The infinite Spirit, to whose realm the spirit in man has an inalienable right, draws the spirits of men back to him, since their longing for the higher world has never been quenched, and their struggle for escape from the terrestrial as from s prison has never 8. Sources ceased. The Eros of Plato finds its and counterpart in the "Wisdom," or Estimation. 'Achamoth, of Valentinus, while the eons are, in the last analysis, simply the Platonic ideas. Pythagoreanism is present in the symbolism of numbers and antitheses; while Stoicism is represented in certain technical terms, as well as in the functions assigned to "seed" and "passion," and in the concept of the cosmic con flagration. The religious side of the system was no less syncretistic than the philosophical, though as to its scope present results are inconclusive, and the sources have scarcely been touched. The pagan syncretism of the Semitic East, though not yet sounded, the Egyptian religion, the popular faiths of Greece aad Rome, all contributed, yet at least some of the Valentinian leaders successfully with- stood the bewildering maze, and sought to lead the pagans, confused by countless religious teachings, to God by a simpler and safer way through the per son of Christ. The authorities to whom they ap pealed were the words of Jesus and his apostles. Marcus asserted the possession of prophetic. gifts and of special inward illumination by the higher Wisdom revealing the supernal mysteries, but both pagans and early Christians did the same. An im partial verdict is impossible from merely the hos tile orthodox writings; but, at all events, these Gnostics sought only to be Christian teachers, preachers, and prophets. The Church, however, judged differently, and it was soon forgotten that the Gnostics had assisted to render the reception of Christianity possible in the cultured world. Its dualism threatened to substitute ditheism for mono theism; and its obliteration of all history, which became but s type and symbol, a mere casual factor in the eternal, spiritual drama of emanation and redemption, endangered the firm foundations of the Christian faith. The battle of the Church against Gnosticism was justified, yet the movement proved to involve propitious germs that later unfolded in the Church. How far Valentinus für nished a prototype for the organization of the Church is not fully disclosed by the dearth of infor mation, but the distinction of pneumatics and psy chics reechoed far in a, dual ecclesiastical ethics. The most pronounced influence of his school was through scientific and edifying literature, such- as apocryphal gospels and apostolic adventure in romantic form for the man of average culture, odes for the more educated, sermons for edification, exe getic and systematic treatises for the theologian, an array with which the Church at the time had nothing in comparison. To what degree ecclesiastical literature that first deserved the name of sci entific was influenced .by Valentinus and his school is best seen in Clement of Alexandria and Origen (qq.v.). Not only did Clement's polemics purely or impurely absorb of the character whom he attacked, but he borrowed of him illustrations, analogies, and courses of thought for his own occasions. The com mentaries of Origen were doubtless composed in part to replace Gnostic exegesis (cf. John), and even his sermons may have been more or less inspired by antipathy to the "soul-destroying" homilies of the Valentiniana. Even the hymn of Clement may not have been uninfluenced by Valentinian poesy. Thus the Church reshaped the weapons of its ene mies to defeat them; but the memory of the Yalen tinians was retained so long, that after the last remnants had long vanished, they still formed the subject of legislation (Codex. Theodosianus, X., v. 65, § 2).

(Erwin Preuschen.)

Bibliography: Consult the literature under Gnosticism, particularly the works of Matter, Neander, Bear, Mansel, Hilgenfeld, Kite, and Ana; also: G. Heinrici, Die valentan%ache Gnosia und die heilige Schrift, Breslau, 1871 (best); DOB, iv. 1078-99 (indispensable); - W, M511er. Geschichte der Kosmologie in der priechischen Ifarche, pp. 4U7-442, Halle, 1880; K. Kessler, User Gnosis uisd aZtbabyEonische Religion, in the Verhandlungen of the 5th International Congress of Orientalist9, ii. 1, pp. .288-305, Berlin, 1882; T. Zahn, Geschichte des uaeutestamentl%chen Kanons, i. 71$763, ii. 953-981, Leipsic, 1888-89; A. Silgenfeld, in ZiVT, 1880, pp. 280-300, 1883, pp. 355-384, 1890, 1-83;

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A. E. Brooke, in TS, i. 4 (1891); C. Schmidt, in TU, viii. 1 (1892); Harnack, Dogma,, passim, consult Index; idem, Litteratur, i. 174-184, ii. 1, pp. 291-298; idem, in SBA. 1898, pp. 518-520; F. Torn, Valentinianismens Historic op Lore, Copenhagen, 1901; E. C. H. Peithmann, Die Valentinianer, 2 parts, Bitterfeld, 1903; E. de Faye, In troduction k l'l;tude du gnosticiame, pp. 81 sqq., Paris. 1903; E. H. Schmitt, Gnosis, Leipsic, 1903; Bardenhewer, Geschichte, pp . 331-337; idem, Patrologie, pp. 68-89, Eng. transl., St. Louis, 1908; P. Wendland, Die hdleniatisehr&mische Kultur in ihren Beziehungen zu Judentum and Chr£stentum, pp. 181 sqq., Tübingen, 1907; C. Barth, Die Interpretation des Neuen Testaments in der valentinianischen Gnosis, in TU, asavii. 3 (1911); Ceillier, Auteurs sacrés, i. 497 sqq., ii. 540, iv. 171, 510; Schaff, Christian Church, ii. 472-482; Nesnder, Christian Church, i. 417 l34 et passim; and, in general, works on the church history of the time. ,