Pius

PIUS, pai´Us: The name of ten popes.

Pius I.: Bishop of Rome 140–155. According to the Muratorian Canon (q.v.) he was a brother of the Hermas who was the author of "The Shepherd." Tertullian ("Against Marcion," i. 19) declares that Marcion in the time of this pope went to Rome for the purpose of establishing his sect there. According to Irenæus, Valentinus and the Syrian Cerdon were active there at the same time. Thus the pontificate of Pius I. was a stormy one. What part Pius took in these conflicts and controversies is not known, but one of the ablest of his champions and allies was Justin Martyr (q.v.). Pius I. was canonized and his festival is July 11.

(H. Böhmer.)

Bibliography: Sources are Irenæus, Hær.,Ill., iii. 3, Eng. transl., ANF, i. 416; Eusebius, Hist. eccl., IV., xi., Eng. transl., NPNF, 2 ser., i. 182 sqq; Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, i. 4–5, Paris, 1886, ed. Mommsen, in MGH, Gest. pont. Rom., i (1898), 14. Consult, Jaffé, Regesta, i. 7–8; Harnack, Lltteratur, i. 789, ii. 1, pp. 70 sqq. (where literature on the lisle of Roman bishops is fully given); J. Langen, Geachichte der römischen Kirche, i., iii, sqq., Bonn, 1881; Bower, Popes, i. 12–13; Platina, Popes, i. 27–29.

Pius II. (Æneas Silvius, Enea Silvio de’ Piccolomini): Pope 1458–64.

Early Life.

He was born in Corsignano, the present Pienza (100 m. n.n.w. of Rome), Oct. 18, 1405. He studied at the University of Siena, came under the spell of the penitential appeal of Bernardino of Siena (1425), and was with difficulty restrained from joining the Franciscan order. At Florence he began the study of law, in deference to his father's wishes, but against his own inclination; he was fortunate, however, in finding a position as secretary in the employment of the bishop of Fermo. The latter took him to the Council of Basel (q.v.), already under the shadow of suspension at the hand of Eugenius IV. (1431). Like his master, whom Piccolomini before long exchanged for one offering higher pay, he joined the opposition; though leaving Basel and making a journey in the political service of Cardinal Albergati, first to the Netherlands, then to Scotland, and not returning to Basel until 1436. Though still a layman, Piccolomini soon managed to gain a certain esteem in connection with the council. His cleverness and rhetorical talent procured him the post of abbreviator, and caused him to be commissioned on various embassies. But when it was proposed to nominate him as conclavist in behalf of electing a successor to Eugenius IV., whom the council had pronounced to be deposed, he declined this honor, as he wished to avoid consecration in order that he might still indulge in pleasures not permitted to the clergy. In the year 1438 or 1439, Piccolomini began his Commentarii on the Council of Basel; in 1440, he wrote the Libellus dialogorum de auctoritate consilii generalis. Wide prospects were disclosed to him when, in 1442, he attended the imperial diet at Frankfort as envoy. It was there that the bishops of Chiemsee and Treves recommended him to King Frederick III., who crowned him with the laurel, poet of scandalous verses though he was; and then took him into his own service as secretary. An index to his mood and frame of mind at that time is found in a letter addressed to his father from Vienna, Sept. 22, 1443. He asks him to receive in his home one of his own (Piccolomini's) illegitimate sons; and adds by way of excuse, that he, "of course, was no capon, nor did he belong to your cold natures," casting at his father the shameless comparison: "You know what sort of a chanticleer you were yourself." If, therefore, a "conversion" of Piccolomini is supposed to have occurred in the following year still this hindered him not from publishing so lascivious a tale as "Euryalus and Lucretia"; and the play Chrysis, of which one critic observes that it "shows brilliant wit and intimate familiarity with the indecencies and obscenities of the Roman poets, and is worthy to be produced in a brothel." And if he writes under date of Mar. 6, 1446: "I am a subdeacon; something I once thoroughly abhorred to be. Levity has left me," the latter acknowledgment need not be taken for very serious repentance. The mainspring rather appears in what he writes two days later: "I own to you, dearest brother, I am satiated, surfeited; I have grown disgusted with Venus . . . Venus even shuns me more than I abominate her." This is not the note of a penitential mood.

Diplomacy.

Simultaneously with his "conversion," as secretary of Frederick III. he changed the direction of his ecclesiastical statecraft. While Felix V. and the Council of Basel still regarded him as the advocate of their interests, he posed even in Vienna as one of the "neutrals," and as such openly Diplomacy. appeared at the Nuremberg diet of 1444. The resolution passed by this diet, that the status of "neutrality" should last till 1445, but that Pope Eugenius IV. should then be requested to convoke a new council, was conveyed to Rome by Piccolomini in person; and if, indeed, he did not there contrive to gain approval for his errand, he still gained the entire favor and pardon of Eugenius IV. as far as his own course was concerned. Thus the political variation was effectually reversed; while in order to set aside the animosity still prevalent in Germany he supported the king with all his diplomatic art. Nor was reward from Rome lacking. After Eugenius IV. had appointed him papal secretary, there followed, upon his returning to Vienna subsequently to the papal election of 1447, his nomination as bishop of Trieste, and, in 1450, as bishop of Siena. At this time Piccolomini conceived a new "mission" for himself, designed to carry him still higher and to obliterate all disagreeable souvenirs of his Basel period. He 77endeavored to unite all Europe against the Turks, who already held in their control the citadel of classical Greek culture. So upon his urgent appeal, Nicholas V., on Sept. 30, 1453, issued the crusading bull, and Piccolomini, at the diets of Regensburg and Frankfort in 1454, delivered lofty orations against the hereditary foe of Christendom. The circumstance that, following the new papal election of 1455, Piccolomini transcended his commissioned authority, and in the name of the emperor acknowledged the obediency of Calixtus III., although the promises of the deceased pope had not so much as been rehearsed, let alone approved, finally brought him the greatly desired red hat, in Dec., 1456, though his thanks for its bestowal were cold. Thenceforth he remained at Rome in close alliance with Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia, later Alexander VI. He it was, at the conclave after the death of Calixtus III., in 1458, who carried through the election of Piccolomini.

His Work as Pope.

Rome joyfully acclaimed the election of the worldly-fashioned humanist. Nevertheless, his election proved a disappointment to the mendicant literati, who beset him with all sorts of petitions. To his teacher alone, the aged Filelfo in Florence, was he accessible, and to him he granted a pension, though this was irregularly paid, thus eventually gave occasion to invectives against the donor. However, Pius II. expended considerable sums in the acquisition of manuscripts and for the copying of valuable codices, besides employing artists of every kind, particularly architects, at Rome, Siena, and Corsignano. The first project which the new pope desired to carry out, was that of a crusade to recover Constantinople. An assembly of Christian princes, convened at Mantua, was opened by Pius II. himself; but the proposition to impose a general tithe for the purpose was withstood on the part of Venice and France, and also met with obstruction in the case of the Austrian Duke Sigismund's delegate, Gregory of Heimburg (q.v.). It was in course of the strife with him (for he appealed from the pope to a general council) that the notorious bull Execrabilis appeared, Jan. 18, 1460, which even thus early applied the ban against an appeal of that kind. This reveals the extreme of contrasts expressed in the man who formerly at Basel had championed the superiority of the councils over the popes. The action that emanated from Mantua, and even evoked a bull declaring war and issuing summons for a crusade (Jan. 14, 1460), had no practical result, because meanwhile, at Naples, the conflict which broke out between the Spanish and the French pretenders for the sovereignty rendered all procedure against the Turks impossible. The pope then turned his attention to other objects. He endowed with affluence his nephews and other favorites at Siena; he sought to annul the pragmatic sanction of Bourges (1438); in Germany, the opposition of the archbishop of Mainz, Dieter of Isenburg, necessitated measures of the utmost stringency, including that prelate's deposition (1461) followed next by the ban, which was not revoked until 1464. It was in Bohemia, however, that the strife became hottest. In 1458, King Podiebrad had been forced to promise, in conjunction with his oath of obedience to Calixtus III., that he would "lead back the Bohemian people from all errors and heresies to the true Catholic faith and into obedience toward the Roman Church," which promise Podiebrad was unable to meet because the Utraquists (see Huss, John), under Rokyczana, were too strong. On the contrary, at the national diet of May 15, 1461, he was compelled to guarantee them the perpetuation of the articles compacted at Prague. Accordingly, Pius II. stepped in. with absolute power, and annulled the concession by the Council of Basel in favor of the Bohemians, although he himself had advised its adoption. Podiebrad, who personally was a Utraquist, now sided openly with that party. His subsequent citation to Rome, under date of June 15, 1464, on charge of heresy was rendered inoperative by the pope's death.

Conflicts and Failures.

A matter of less moment was involved in a conflict with Duke Sigismund of Tyrol, mentioned above as Duke Sigismund of Austria. For years the latter had stood at odds with the bishop of Brixen, the famous cardinal of Cues (Cusanus), who claimed the suzerainty over Tyrol. Cusanus had been commissioned during the convention at Mantua as governor of Rome, for he was an old friend of Pius Il. But when he returned to Tyrol, Sigismund waylaid him and took him prisoner. Ban and interdict were the sequel (1460). On promising to procure at Rome the repeal of the church penalties, Cusanus recovered his freedom; but as nevertheless he failed to effect the desired repeal, he did not return to Tyrol. Neither did he survive the conclusion of subsequent negotiations between Pius II. and the duke (1461). With all these conflicts and cares, the pope was not permitted to compass his favorite plan. Even his marvelous attempt miscarried whereby the Sultan Muhamed II. was to be converted by epistolary persuasion. Above all, there was dearth of money. Within the papal domain, and but eight miles from Rome, the rich and sumptuous camp of the Alouni was discovered; whereupon Pius II. once again convened envoys of various powers, and in 1463 promulgated a new bull in behalf of a crusade. But except at Venice, which had a twofold interest in the enterprise, and Hungary, which was immediately menaced, the war against the Turks found no response. Then the pope headed affairs in person. In June, 1464, he journeyed to Ancona; and had the satisfaction, on August 12, when already gravely ill, of outliving the arrival of the Venetian fleet. But three days later he died, in his last words earnestly commending to those about him the crusade and the dependent members of his family. He seemed to have realized what had been his strongest motive in connection with this undertaking, to expiate, by means of a "good death," an evil life. "We think," for so had he said in the discourse wherewith he proclaimed the beginning of the crusade, "it might go well with us if God should please to have us end our days in his service."

Character.

The tremendous chasm which seams his life Pius II. himself attempted to cover under a still greater equivocation. All that he formerly assailed at 78Basel, and what he wrote to the praise of the council, he retracted by appeal to Augustine in the bull In minoribus of Apr. 26, 1463. Even previously, in the Epistola retractationis (cf. F. H. Reusch, Der Index der verbotenen Bücher, i. 40, Bonn, 1883), he had expressed himself in similar terms. And as touching his Commentarii on the Council of Basel, which during the sixteenth century found their way to the Index, he offset the same, in the years 1448–51, with a work advocating the papal point of view. Again, with reference to his obscene writings, about the period of 1440, the pope exclaims to his readers: "Away with that Æneas, and now receive Pius!" He brought his autobiography down to 1464; and it was issued in elaborated form by his friend Campano. Sundry historical, geographical, and ethnographical writings belong to the second period of his development, among them the history of Frederick III., wherein events of the years 1439–1456 are set forth in piquant style, also, the "Bohemian History," and the works "Europa" and "Asia." The vindictiveness of the aggrieved humanist Filelfo attributed to Pius crimes against nature such as not even Piccolomini had committed. His life in the papal office appears to have been unobjectionable; although the charge of nepotism was well founded. Withal he was eager to eradicate heresy, even though he laid himself open to a charge of heresy: "With reason was marriage taken away from priests; but with weightier reason it ought to be again allowed them." In the case of Bishop Pecock of Chichester (q.v.), this prelate had first denied the infallibility of the Church in comparison with Holy Scripture, but had afterward renounced that "false doctrine." However, when still again he opposed the Church's infallibility, the pope (1459) commanded his legate to see to it that the apostate be burned, together with his writings. And under date of May 11, 1463, he urged the bloodthirsty and avaricious inquisitors to allow no human consideration to prevail as against the Waldenses. Thus even with him, no sooner was the interest of the ecclesiastical authority at stake than everything else that stamps his nature—classicaI culture, creature benevolence, liberality of a richly endowed intellect—was thrust aside.

Upon the death of Pius II. at Ancona on August 15, his body was conveyed to Rome, and first bestowed in the (older) Church of St. Peter; subsequently (1614), sarcophagus and monument were lodged in the Church of S. Andrea della Valle.

Writings

The pope's writings were printed in a collective edition at Basel, 1551 and 1571. His Literæ appeared in many separate editions (Cologne, 1478; Nuremberg, 1481, 1486, 1496.) They were classified, with many accessions, by G. Voigt in Archiv für Kunde österreichischer Geschichtsquellen (1856); some supplements appear in Pastor's Römische Päpste, vol. ii., appendix (Freiburg, 1894; Eng. transl., vol. iii.); a new ed. was begun by R. Wolkan in the Fontes rerum Austriacarum, of which two volumes have appeared, Vienna, 1909–10. There is a Frankfort edition (1614) of his Commentarii rerum memorabilium, also, ed. G. Lesca, Pisa, 1894. The Commentariorum . . . de concilio Basiliensi appeared at Cologne, 1521; his Epistola Retractationis is in C. Fea, Pius II. a calumniis vindicatus (Rome, 1823); the Historia Friderici III. is in A. F. Kollar, Analecta . . . Vindobonensia, vol. ii. (Vienna, 1762); his "Addresses" were issued by Mansi (3 vols., Lucca, 1755–59); supplements by G. Cugnoni, Opera inedita Pii II. (Rome, 1883).

K. Benrath.

Bibliography: Creighton, Papacy, iii. 202–358; K. R. Hagenbach, Erinnerungen an Æneas Silvius Piccolomini, Basel, 1840; C. H. Verdière, Essai sur Ænea Silvio Piccolomini, Paris, 1843; J. M. Düx, Der deutsche Kardinal Nicolaus von Cusa, i. 169 sqq., ii. 119 sqq., 142 sqq., Regensburg, 1847; G. Voigt, Eneas Silvius . . . und sein Zeitalter, 3 vols., Berlin, 1856–63; idem, Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen AIterthums, 2 vols., Berlin 1880–81; H. G. P. Gengler, Ueber Æneas Sylvius in seiner Bedeutung für die deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, Erlangen, 1860; F. Palacky, Geschichte von Böhmen, iv. 2, pp. 80 sqq., Prague, 1880; A. Jäger, Der Streit des Nikolaus von Cusa mit dem Herzog Sigmund von Oesterreich, i. 317 sqq., ii. 44 sqq., Innsbruck, 1861; C. A. H. Markgraf, Ueber das Verhältness des Königs Georg von Böhmen zu Papst Pius II., Breslau, 1867; A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, iii. 1, pp. 129 sqq., 387 sqq., Berlin, 1868; F. H. Reusch, Index der verbotenen Bücher, i. 36, 40, Bonn, 1883; A. Frind, Die Kirchengeschichte Böhmens, iv. 46 sqq., Prague, 1878; G. W. Kitchin, Life of Pius II., London, 1881; A. Beeg, Pius II. in seiner Bedeutung als Geograph, Halle, 1901; W. Boulting, Æneas Silvius (Enea Silvio de Piccolomini—Pius II.), Orator, Man of Letters, Statesman and Pope, London, 1909; Schaff, Christian Church, v. 2, passim; Mirbt, Quellen, pp 189–170; Ranke, Popes, i. 28–29, 306; Pastor, Popes, vols. ii.–iii. passim; Bower, Popes, iii. 241–244; Platina, Popes, ii. 257–275, Milman, Latin Christianity, vii. 565, viii. 64–122.

Pius III. (Francesco Todeschini): Pope 1503. He was a nephew of Pope Pius II. and was born at Siena in 1439. His uncle had him educated at Perugia, and influenced him to adopt the name and arms of the Piccolomini. He also created him archbishop of Siena in 1460, cardinal in 1462, and governor of Rome in 1464. By the following popes the "cardinal of Siena" was largely employed on diplomatic missions. That he possessed courage was evinced by his vigorous opposition, in 1497, restraining Alexander VI. from erecting a duchy out of portions of the States of the Church in behalf of his son, the duke of Gandia. He is supposed to have owed his election in Sept., 1503, not so much to his unstained reputation as to his manifestly impaired health. In fact, he died on the tenth day after his enthronement, Oct. 18, 1503. He had permitted Cæsar Borgia to return, and thus left the city of Rome in grievous confusion under the strife between him and the Orsini and Colonna.

K. Benrath.

Bibliography: Pastor, Popes, vi. 185–208; Creighton, Papacy, v. 61–67; F. Petruccelli della Gattina, Hist. Diplomatique des conclaves, i. 435 sqq., Paris, 1864; F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, viii. 4 sqq. Stuttgart, 1874; A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, iii. 2, pp. 7 sqq., Berlin, 1878; Piccolomini, in Archivio storica Italico, v. 32, 102–103, Florence, 1903; Bower, Popes, iii. 277–278.

Pius IV. (Giovanni Angelo Medici): Pope 1560–1565. He was derived not from the Florentine Medici but from a Milanese family, was elected pope at the age of sixty years in Dec., 1559, and was enthroned as Pius IV. on Epiphany, 1560.

Unlike his predecessor Paul IV. (q.v.), whose 79policy had been passionately hostile to Spain, he turned toward the Austro-Spanish house. By nature he was the counterpart to that somber man who had reorganized the inquisition at Rome, perceiving therein the best instrument of his domination. Pius IV. was affable, benevolent, and of simple manners. Yet it was his lot, soon after his ascension to the throne, to inflict the extreme penalty of the law upon the two nephews of his predecessor. One of them, the duke of Paliano, besides other deeds of violence, had caused thirty vassals of the hostile Colonna family to be imprisoned, and atrociously made away with his wife's paramour, as well as herself. The evidence against him inculpated in like degree his brother, Cardinal Caraffa. When the trial proceedings had lasted eight months, the pope himself gave the decision, in a sealed order at the final session, imposing the death sentence upon both, which was carried out Mar. 6, 1561. Under Pius V., however, the trial was reviewed, the stigma upon the two brothers was removed, and the promoter of the trial was himself condemned to death.

Nepotism in the Curia was radically abolished by Pius IV., who contrived to extract large sums of money from the States of the Church and from the ecclesiastical administration, and allotted considerable amounts to his adherents, though he never yielded to them special influence in State or Church. His weightiest concern was the reopening of the Council of Trent (q.v.), the result of which was no less gratifying to the Curia than it was disappointing to Emperor Ferdinand. For even though the emperor refused to acknowledge its decrees, and though not until later, and subject to the guaranteed rights of his crown, were these decrees acknowledged by King Philip II., while the French parliament assumed an expectant stand, yet during the council and by virtue of it, Pius IV. removed all dangers that threatened the papal absolutism within the Church. When, in 1564, he solemnly published the council's decrees and imposed upon the bishops the Professio fidei Tridentinæ (see Tridentine Profession of Faith) as a matter of obligation, he could do so in the consciousness that the papal theory had now conquered effectually. Hence the contingency of apostasy without was indemnified within the Church by a centralization of ecclesiastical economy such as laid all the lines of administration, jurisdiction, and doctrinal finality in the sole hands of the pope.

Destiny placed Pius IV. between two popes who stand as the most impassioned persecutors of heretics in that century, Paul IV. and Pius V. For he is not the equal of these in furtherance of the inquisition and in persecution of heretics. Yet where opportunity offered, he showed himself ready for that object; and it was he who facilitated the conflict in the literary arena by devising the expedient of the Index librorum prohibitorum, so named by him in 1564.

K. Benrath.

Bibliography. Onuphrius Panvinius, De summis pontificibus continuatio, Bonona, 1599; Ranke, Popes, 1. 241 sqq., iii. nos. 31–40; M. Broach, Geschichte des Kirchenstaates, vol. i., Gotha, 1880; F. H. Reuseh, Index der verboten Bücher, passim, Bonn, 1885; Bower, Popes, iii. 319–320; and the literature under Trent, Council of.

Pius V. (Michele Ghislieri): Pope 1566–72. He was born at Bosco near Alessandria (48 m. e.s.e. of Turin), and both as cardinal and as pope conceived his main task to be the detection and annihilation of heresy. He belonged to the Dominican order, to which this activity was particularly committed. After some earlier inquisitorial service about Milan, he was drawn to Rome by Caraffa in 1550 (see Paul IV.), who conferred on him the cardinalate and appointed him director of the Roman inquisition. He owed his election as pope (Jan. 8, 1566) to Cardinal Borromeo and other exponents of the very strictest trend in the sacred college. The Roman populace felt due fear on hearing that "Frà Michele dell’ Inquisizione" had ascended the papal throne. In fact, no pope applied so indefatigably every agency for annihilating the heretics. Both in and out of Italy, he was incessantly exhorting or threatening governments to make them accommodating to this end. And the consequence was favorable to him, especially in the Italian peninsula. During the six years of his pontificate, Protestantism in Italy was deprived of its last vestige of strength; its prominent advocates being either killed or driven away (see Italy, Reformation in). In France, Catherine de’ Medici and Charles IX. were at his command. He fortified the Spanish king in his measures against the Netherlands, and sent to the duke of Alva the consecrated hat and sword.

Yet according to Roman Catholic apprehension, this foe of "heretics" was a very pious man, and in Rome he insisted on the most stringent ecclesiastical discipline, imposing heavy penalties for desecration of festival days. No physician was to continue treating a patient critically ill, unless that patient's certificate of confession be produced on the third day for inspection. Whoever, among the higher clergy, combined an ascetic life with strictness toward the nether clergy, was regarded as the right man, as in the case of Carlo Borromeo.

Toward the close of his labors he was destined also to achieve a notable success in statecraft. Like so many of his predecessors, he headed an action against the Turks, which Venice and Spain assisted with their naval forces, and the work was crowned by the brilliant victory of Lepanto (Oct. 7, 1571).

Pius V. died on May 1, 1572, and was canonized by Clement XI.

K. Benrath

Bibliography. G. G. Catena, Vita del . . . Papa Pio V., Rome, 1587; Ranke, Popes, i. 269 sqq., iii., no. 43: J. Quétif and J. Échard. Scriptores ordinis Prædicatorurn, ii. 220, Paris, 1721; J. Mendham, Life and Pontificate of Plus V., London, 1832; A. F. P. Comte de Falloux, Hist. de . . . Pie V., 2 vols., Angers, 1844; T. M. Granallo, Frà Michele Ghislieri, o San Pio V., Bologna, 1877; F. H. Reusch, Index der verbotenen Bücher, Bonn, 1885; C. A. Joyau, Saint Pie V., pape du rosaire, Poitiers, 1892; P. A. Farochan, Cheypre et Léfante, St. Pie V. et Don Juan d’Autriche, Paris, 1894 (profusely illustrated): U. Papa, Un Dissidio tra Venezia a Pio V.. Venice, 1895; B. A. H. Wilberforce, St. Pius V., London, 1896; Bower, Popes, iii. 320, 484–489; Pastor, Popes, viii. 432 sqq.

Pius VI. (Giovanni Angelo Braschi): Pope 1775–1799.

Election and Policy

He was born at Cesena (57 m. n.e. of Florence) Dec. 27, 1717. After a course in jurisprudence, he entered the clerical vocation, and in 1740 went to Rome with his uncle, auditor to Cardinal Ruffo. Years later, he reappears as secretary to 80Benedict XIV. and canon at St. Peter's. He was created cardinal in 1773 by Clement XIV., with whom he did not sympathize in the principal question connected with his name, that is, suppression of the Jesuit order in 1773 (see Jesuits, II., § 8). When the conclave assembled after Clement's death, the cardinal's election was vigorously resisted from several quarters which employed even personal calumniation, and his election was reached only after the conclave had sat for four months. The Romans received him coolly. Yet though the more zealous faction hoped for immediate restoration of the Jesuit order, Pius VI. considered himself circumscribed to a policy of expectation and waiting in order not to become involved in disputes with Spain, France, and other states.

German and Austrian Difficulties.

At first, the pope turned his attention to the elevation of the morality of the clergy in Rome. Before long, however, he was diverted to affairs at a distance, first, in Germany. In that country the movement which was associated with the work of Febronius (see Hontheim, Johann Nikolaus von) had circulated extensively, though it had been placed on the Index in 1764. Meanwhile the true authorship, concealed under the pseudonym, had become known. Inasmuch as Pius VI. had correctly described, in an address dated Sept. 24, 1775, the bearings of the movement upon the Roman Church, he now commissioned the elector of Treves to constrain the author to retract, and the form of retraction was to comprehend the statement of its purely voluntary character. This experiment proved successful, for the author was a broken old man, then (1778) nearly fourscore years old. However, in other quarters there asserted itself the spirit which had prompted Hontheim, in the form of Josephinism (see Joseph II.).

But though Pius VI. perceived things clearly and was prepared to retaliate, he neither approved nor yet abruptly reversed the first procedure of Joseph II., who withdrew the Austrian cloisters from submission to the supreme control of foreign generals of monastic orders. Even when Garampi, his nuncio at Vienna, in Dec., 1781, met with a brusk rebuff from Count Kaunitz, on the score of his instructive Promemoria to the emperor—the pope still believed he could attain every purpose through personal intervention. So in the spring of 1782 he journeyed to Vienna, but every attempt to draw the emperor and his minister from the path of reform continued fruitless. The enthusiastic speeches, in turn, which the Roman Catholic population addressed to the pope on occasion of his awe-commanding appearance in Vienna, Munich, and Augsburg nowise availed to console him over the miscarriage of his attempt. This is apparent from the brief to the emperor, dated Aug. 3, 1782, with its rather patent affirmation that "those who lay their hands on the goods of the Church belong to hell." He seemed afterward more conciliatory; but in Sept., 1783, he was provoked afresh by the emperor's arbitrary course in appointing, as though he were the sole authority, a bishop for Milan. When, therefore, Joseph II. was confronted with the prospect of excommunication, he answered that his holiness might anyhow deign to visit the becoming punishment upon the individual who had made so bold as to misuse his name by forging a document. Without awaiting reply, the emperor next announced his visit to Rome, which came to pass in January, 1784. And at last Pius gained the point which had been so vehemently contested, namely, that the appointment to the episcopal sees in Lombardy be conceded to him. He continued the reforms in church conditions in Austria. After the Congress of Ems (see Ems, Congress of) had completed its sittings, and the electors transmitted to the emperor the Ems Proviso, Joseph II. made answer that they could reckon upon his cooperation in execution of the same. And yet they had there decidedly emphasized the sole prerogative of the archbishops in matters of reform. At all events, the pope easily became master of the Ems resolutions, as not only the bishops in Germany, but even one of the members of the Congress, the archbishop of Mainz, went over to the papal camp. In order to secure the Curia's acquiescence in the election of a coadjutor, he offered the Ems Proviso by way of exchange; wherein he was followed, down to 1789, by the other participants in the Congress. In short, they transformed the drafted resolutions into very modest petitions. In the case of the king of Prussia, Frederick William IL, who had been accommodating to the pope in connection with Mainz, Pius VI. accorded him the reward of no longer thenceforth withholding from him the title of king.

Affairs in Belgium and Italy

Even while premonitory signs of the French Revolution were perceptible, the pope still gained a victory over Joseph's reform attempts. In what was then Austrian Belgium, the closure of the episcopal seminaries (1786) had evoked great agitation, also actively fomented by the papal nuncio. And though Joseph II. dismissed the nuncio from that country, this measure did not stay the outbreak of actual insurrection any more than did the repeal of the closure itself, together with a propitiatory word from the pope. For the provinces proclaimed their independence, and there stepped to the front as president the pope's thoroughly devoted cardinal-primate Frankenberg. Joseph II. died in 1790. Subsequently; church concerns in the Austrian hereditary lands were once again made thoroughly conformable to papalistic grooves, barring some slight provisional modification at the hands of Emperor Leopold II. Still more serious for Pius VI. appeared to be the trend of ecclesiastical conditions in Tuscany under the Grand Duke Leopold I. The latter, under date of Jan. 26, 1786, issued a circular to the Tuscan bishops proposing fifty-seven reforms; for instance, convocation of diocesan synods, improvement of clerical studies, segregation of suspicious relics, diminution of processions, and the like. Seven bishops assented on principle, among them Ricci of Pistoja (see Ricci, Scipione de’), who then also submitted these points to a synod convening at Pistoja in Sept., 1786, and effected their immediate acceptance. On the other hand, a protest was raised by the bishops generally, through the channel 81of the Tuscan Council (Apr.–June, 1787). And as Leopold I. kept adhering to his plans of reform, there ensued a conflict with the pope; while, in turn, the Tuscan envoy was recalled from Rome. It was only when Leopold ascended the imperial throne (1790) that these complications reached an end; Ricci resigned, and Ferdinand III. receded. Nor was the situation less grave, as affecting the pope, in the kingdom of Naples. In 1779, the royal exequatur was refused to quite a series of papal briefs; in 1780, the king claimed a general patronal right over the benefices, then over the bishoprics; in 1782, the tribunal of the inquisition was dissolved in Sicily; while from 1788, the custom was discontinued, of long centuries' duration though it had been, of offering a tent and the so-called "feudal tribute" at the festival of SS. Peter and Paul. By and by the number of unoccupied bishoprics became so large that in 1791 the pope at last conceded the king's right of presentation of three candidates, whereupon sixty-two episcopal sees were supplied.

Conflict with France.

The outbreak of the French Revolution (q.v.) involved most incisive consequences for the Church. The "civil constitution of the clergy," still proposed for acceptance under Louis XVI., was rejected by Pius VI.; and, in fact, 50,000 priests, following the precedent of 130 bishops, refused the oath in connection with this new ruling. Thereupon, in Sept., 1791, the National Assembly answered by annexing Avignon and Venaissin. Then when a secretary of the French embassy in Rome had been assassinated there by the rabble, in 1793, and when the pope took part in the coalition against France, Bonaparte declared war on him, advanced upon Rome, and compelled Pius VI., during the truce of Bologna, 1796, to relinquish a large part of the States of the Church (see Papal States). When disturbances were renewed, General Berthier occupied Rome in 1798; and had Pius VI., who was ill, transported first to Florence, then to Valence, where he died Aug. 29, 1799.

K. Benrath.

Bibliography: For his bulls, etc., consult either N. S. Guillon's Collection générale des brefs et instructions de . . . Pie VI., 2 vols., Paris, 1798; the Collectio brevium . . . of L. H. Halot, 2 parts, Rome, 1800; or the Collectio bullarum, brevium . . . , London, 1803. For his life and acts consult: Ranke, Popes, ii. 453 sqq., iii. no. 165; P. P. Wolf, Geschichte der römisch-katholischen Kirche unter . . . Pius VI., 7 vols., Zurich, 1793–1802; G. de Novaes, Storia de’ sommi Pontefici, Rome, 1822; P. Baldassari, Hist. de l’enlèvement et de la captivité de Pie VI., Paris, 1839; F. Beccatini, Storia di Pio VI., 4 vols., Venice, 1841; G. C. Cordare, De Profectu Pii VI. ad aulam Viennensem, ed. J. Boërus, Rome, 1855; F. Petrucelli della Gattina, Hist. diplomatique des conclaves, iv. 211 sqq., Paris, 1866; A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, iii. 2, pp. 660 sqq., Berlin, 1870; A. M. de Franclieu, Pie VI. dans les prisons du Dauphiné, Grenoble, 1878; I. Bertrand, Le Pontificat de Pie VI. et l’athéisme révolutionnaire, Paris, 1879; F. H. Reusch, Index der verbotenen Bücher, vol. ii., Bonn, 1885; H. Schletter, Die Reise des Papstes Pius VI. nach Wien, and Pius VI. und Josef II., 2 vols., Vienna, 1892–94 (valuable for the literature named); Pie VI., sa vie, son pontificat (1717–99), Paris, 1907; Nippold, Papacy, pp. 20, 36; Bower, Popes, iii. 390–419.

Pius VII. (Luigi Chiaramonti): Pope 1800–23. He was born at Cesena (57 m. n.e. of Florence) Aug. 14, 1740. At the age of sixteen he entered the Benedictine order, became a lecturer in the cloister at Parma and later in Rome. His predecessor made him bishop of Tivoli, then of Imola, and in 1785, cardinal. When the French army approached Imola, he still maintained his residence in his episcopal city. On that occasion (1797), he contrived to save the town from spoliation and even maintained good terms with Republican powers.

Shortly before he was taken captive, Pius VI. had prescribed that the conclave should be held in that city in the neighborhood of which the most cardinals might happen to be at his death, only not in Rome. So they assembled in Venice, and on Mar. 14, 1800, Chiaramonti was elected unanimously, and in July he entered Rome as Pius VII. For secretary of state he appointed Cardinal Ercole Consalvi (q.v.), whose first achievement of note was the conclusion of the concordat with France (see Concordants and Delimiting Bulls, VI., § 1), which restored most of its rights to the Roman Catholic Church, and annulled episcopal power in favor of the papal absolute supremacy. However, in virtue of the "Organic Articles" (1802), the first consul deprived these concessions of nearly all significance, insomuch that the pope protested. Yet both sides wished to avoid a rupture, and in the following year, Pius VII. appointed the consul's uncle (Joseph Fesch, q.v.) a cardinal.

Meanwhile in Germany, when by terms of the peace of Lunéville, in 1801, the left bank of the Rhine had fallen to France, the secularization of the temporal dominions of the Church was brought to pass despite every protest; and the Elector Dalberg of Mainz, against the will of the Curia, was elected primate of Germany. Even thus early, Napoleon put forth still greater demands, as, when the senate had named him hereditary ruler of France, he desired the pope to consummate the imperial coronation. Reluctantly, but yet in the hope of thereby gaining concessions for the Church, Pius VII. performed the ceremony of anointing (Dec. 2, 1804), but when he was about to place the crown on the sovereign's head, Napoleon forestalled him, crowned himself, and placed the diadem on the head of his consort, Josephine. All demands by the pope on occasion of this journey came to naught; what satisfaction he felt was on account of the deportment of the French people, who were charmed by his presence. At Florence, on his return journey, he received the full , submission of Bishop Ricci of Pistoja (see Ricci, Scipione de’).

But heavy clouds were gathering from France. The emperor demanded the dissolution of his brother Jerome's marriage, desiring Jerome to marry a princess—a prelude to his own course later. When the pope firmly refused, Napoleon declared the marriage dissolved. In 1808, he managed to find occasion to occupy Rome; in 1809, he declared it a French city; and when for this reason he was put under the ban, he had the pope and Cardinal Pacca, carried captive to Savona. But even here Pius VII. would not bend, and refused the confirmation of the French bishops appointed by the emperor until finally the enervating torments of his captivity induced him to an oral assent. But when, owing to continued confinement at Fontainebleau, the tormented 82old man, on Jan. 25, 1813, agreed to a concordat both surrendering Rome and voicing the confirmation of the bishops designated by the emperor, Cardinals Consalvi and Pacca, who hastened to the spot, succeeded in moving him to solemn retraction. Napoleon's own fate had meanwhile turned; the year 1814 gave the captive his freedom again; and on May 24 he triumphantly entered Rome. The restoration of the Jesuits and of the Congregation of the Index, together with Consalvi's activity at the Congress of Vienna, effectually reinstated the Roman Catholic Church both within and without; while by the terms of sundry favorable concordats, the pope guaranteed large advantages, to the states of Central Europe.

At the close of his life, Pius VII. found himself once again involved in conflict, this time with Spain and Portugal. In that quarter, the revolution and the liberal government of 1820 had not only abolished the settlements of the Jesuits, but also those of most of the remaining orders, and ruptured diplomatic relations were the result. The French, however, suppressed the revolution, and King Ferdinand VII. proclaimed the abrogation of all acts against the Church (1823). This happened also in Portugal, where Dom Miguel, at the same time, put an end to liberalism.

The Rome of the second phase of the pontificate of Pius VII. became the goal of artists of all nations. Crowned heads, as well, sought the city, and the venerable pontiff was visited by Emperor Francis II. of Austria (1819); by the king of Naples; and by King Frederick William III. of Prussia, while Charles IV. of Spain and Emanuel of Savoy made Rome their permanent residence. The city was thus enveloped with new splendor; and Pius VII., who died on Aug. 21, 1823, is commemorated still by that part of the Vatican sculpture museum which bears his name Chiaramonti.

K. Benrath.

Bibliography: The bulls are in the Bullarii Romani continuatio of Barberi, vols. xi.–xv., Rome, 1846–53. Consult: Ranke, Popes, ii. 461 sqq, 466 sqq., 539 sqq.; E. Pistolesi, Vita del . . . Pio VII, 2 vols., Rome, 1824; H. Simon, Vie politique et privée de . . . Pie VII., 2 vols., Paris, 1823; Jäger, Lebensbeschreibung des Papstes Pius VII. mit Urkunden, Frankfort, 1824; A. F. Artaud de Montor, Hist. du pope Pie VII., 3 vols., Paris, 1839; B. Pacca, Historical Memoirs, 2 vols., London, 1850; idem, Mémoires sur le pontificat de Pie VII., 2 vols., Paris, 1884; N. P. S. Wiseman, Recollections of the last Four Popes, London, 1858; A. Gavazzi, My Recollections of the last Four Popes, London, 1858; J. Bohl, Pius VII. en zijn Tijd, 2 vols., Rotterdam 1861; F. Petrucelli della Gattina, Hist. diplomatique des conclaves, iv. 282 sqq., Paris, 1866; A. Theiner, Hist. des deux concordats de la république française et de la république cisalpine, 2 vols., Bar-le-Duc, 1869; A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, iii. 2, pp. 665 sqq., Berlin, 1870; O. Meier, Zur Geschichte der römisch-deutschen Frage, vols. i.–iii., passim, Rostock, 1871–73; D. Bertollotti, Vita di Papa Pio VII., Turin, 1881; F. H. Reusch Index der verbotenen Bücher, vol. ii., Bonn, 1885; H. Chotard, Le Pape Pie VII. à Savone, Paris, 1887; Mary H. Allies, Pius VII., London, 1897; F. Nippold, Handbuch der neuesten Kirchengeschichte, ii. 15–70 Berlin, 1901; L. König, Die Säkularisation und das Reichskonkordat, Innsbruck, 1904; H. Welschinger, Le Pape et l’empereur, 1804–15, Paris, 1905; Nielsen, Papacy; Nippold. Papacy, passim; Pastor, Popes, viii. 299; Bower, Popes iii. 419–434; and the literature under Concordats and Delimiting Bulls.

Pius VIII. (Francesco Saverio Castiglioni): Pope 1829–30. He was born at Cingoli (102 m. e.s.e. of Florence) Nov. 20, 1761. The principal event of his brief pontificate was the Emancipation Act of Apr. 23 [13], 1829, in favor of English Catholics, though this did not have the pope's cooperation. In the case of the contest just then breaking out with the Prussian government, Plus VIII. allowed the clerical assistentia passiva, where there was no guaranty for the bringing up of all the children as Roman Catholics. This concession was revoked by his successor. When the Bourbons were expelled from France in the July revolution, and Louis Philippe was instituted king, the pope reluctantly acknowledged the reversal.

K. Benrath.

Bibliography: The bulls are in the Bullarii Romani continuatio of Barberi, vol. xviii., Rome, 1856; for the Brief of Mar. 25, 1830, cf. Mirbt, Quellen, pp. 350 sqq. Consult: A. F. Artaud de Montor Hist. du pape Pie VIII., Paris, 1844; A. Gavazzi, My Recollections of the last Four Popes, London 1858; N. P. S. Wiseman, Recollections of the last Four Popes, London, 1858; M. Brosch, Geschichte des Kirchenstaates, ii. 316 sqq., Gotha, 1882; F. H. Reusch, Index der verbotenen Bücher, vol. ii, passim. Bonn. 1885; F. Nippold, Handbuch der neuesten Kirchengeschichte, ii. 79 sqq., Berlin, 1901; Bower, Popes, iii. 464–470; Nippold, Papacy, passim; Nielsen, Papacy, passim.

Pius IX. (Giovanni Mastai Ferretti): Pope 1846–1878. He was born at Sinigaglia (70 m. s.e. of Ravenna) May 13, 1792. He studied in the Collegium Romanum, was made priest, and labored for several years in Chile. In 1827 he became bishop of Spoleto, then of Imola, and obtained the cardinalate in 1840. Elected by 34 (37 ?) votes, in the conclave following the death of Gregory XVI, Pius IX. found himself confronted with extremely difficult tasks. The administration of the Papal States (q.v.) had everywhere aroused the utmost dissatisfaction; and the cities of the eastward half—Ancona, Bologna, and Ravenna—clamored for reforms. The pope's character and presence appeared to warrant such progress, and it was hoped that he might even assist in the unification of the entire nation, which was demanded on every side.

Good will for the amelioration of existing conditions attended him from the outset. He curtailed the expenses of the papal court, though in connection with the civil administration he could not persuade himself to break with the system according to which the governing officials were to belong almost without exception to the clerical body. He refused the patriots' demand for some action toward eliminating the Austrians from the Italian peninsula, resolving not to declare war on Austria, although his troops were already united with the Piedmont troops; but, in his address of Apr. 29, 1848, he took shelter behind the pronouncement that "conformably to our apostolic rank, we embrace all nations with like love."

Though it proved not feasible to laicize the administration of public affairs throughout the Papal States, in Rome the lay element was to be more strongly represented in the common council; some non-clerics also took seats in the council of state (consulta). This did not meet the impetuous demand for a constitution and for institution of secular ministers. Yet on May 4, 1848, upon adjustment of the membership of the Consults in the proportion of six laymen to three clerics, a patriotic president of council was accepted in the person of 83Terenzo Mamiani; but in view of the conflict that soon ensued with the Curia's executive experience and wisdom, Mamiani perceived himself constrained to withdraw. His successor, Count Rossi, was assassinated, and in order to escape the tumult, Pius IX. fled from Rome to Gaeta. From that base he rejected the suggestion of the Piedmontese that he allow them to restore the Papal States as a constitutional monarchy. This was done by the French in 1849, but not under those conditions. Hardly had Pius IX. returned (Apr., 1850) when he inaugurated an era of uncompromising reaction, marked, for instance, by the incident that in Bologna alone, down to 1856, the "court of summary justice" had executed by shooting 276 "culprits."

The administration of the Papal States was now conducted by Antonelli (q.v.) on a thoroughly clerical basis. In the department of finance, individuals, including Antonelli, enriched themselves; nothing was done in the matter of public instruction to reduce the scandalous illiteracy of the land; while in the department of justice arbitrary ruling was rife. In short, the Papal States remained the worst administered political fabric in Europe, while trade and industry were in wretched condition. In the distinctly ecclesiastical sphere, wherein Pius IX., in 1854, conceived the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of Mary (q.v.), without taking counsel of the Church, he tested the point as to how far the bishops would conform to his bidding. At the same time, in relation to civil governments, he carried most of his demands through the medium of concordats (with Spain, 1851; Austria, 1855; also with lesser German States; see Concordats and Delimiting Bulls). In Italy, however, the unification project, supported by Piedmont, now so successfully asserted itself against the pope that its several stages were completely accomplished (victory over Austria, 1859; Victor Emanuel, king of Italy, 1860; September treaty, 1864) even down to the conquest of Rome, in 1870. It is memorable that the last step in the process was achieved shortly after the momentous date when the Vatican Council (q.v.) had declared the infallibility of the pope, July 18, 1870.

To be sure, the occupation of Rome by the Italian army was by no means intended to banish the pope from that city thereafter. They suffered him the narrowly circumscribed "sovereignty" of the Vatican; and even offered him, in the stipulation law of 1871, an annual income of 3,250,000 francs. But Pius IX. rejected this offer, feigned a state of captivity, and a limitation upon his action which soon became subjects of derision; for it appeared, as in the contest with Prussia, that the Curia had grown more free than formerly in the matter of safeguarding its ecclesiastical interests. The last years of Pius' pontificate are largely filled with this contest, he himself having given the challenge in that address of the spring of 1871 wherein he threatened Prussia with the "stone" of her destined shattering. Yet even this contest (so grave in its results and not finally appeased until Leo XIII., q.v., came into power) did not prevent the brilliant celebration of two jubilees of Pius IX. In 1871 he celebrated the twenty-fifth anniversary of his pontificate, whereby he had attained to the "years of Peter"; and in 1877 his jubilee proper, or fiftieth year in the priesthood. On this occasion he beheld the whole Roman Catholic world at his feet. In deed, he surpassed the " years of Peter " by seven years, dying on Feb. 7, 1878. He and his secretary of state Antonelli did not achieve the restoration of the temporal sovereignty, but they bequeathed such a heritage to the following pontiff as he well understood how profitably to occupy to the Church's advantage.

K. Benrath.

Bibliography: Sources of information for the pontificate are the Acta Pie IX., 4 vols., Rome, 1854 sqq.; Acta sanctæ sedis, ib. 1865 sqq.; Acta et decreta sanctorum conciliorum, vol. vi., Freiburg, 1882. A collection of this pope's encyclicals was published in Freiburg, 1881 sqq., and of his "Apostolic Letters," 2 vols., Paris, 1893. A large literature is indicated in the British Museum Catalogue, under "Rome, Church of," cols. 332 sqq., and under Pius IX. Consult: Mirbt, Quellen, pp. 360–390 sqq.; M. Marocco, Storia di Pio IX., 2 vols., Turin, 1856–59; H. Reuchlin, Geschichte Italiens, vols. i., iii., iv., Leipsic, 1859–73; F. Liverani, Il Papato, l’Impero e il Regno d’Italia, Florence, 1861; A. Gennarelli, Le Sventure ital. durante il Pontificato di Pio IX., Florence, 1863; A. O. Legge, Pius IX., 2 vols., London, 1872; Abbé Gillet, Pie IX., sa vie et les acts de son pontificat, Paris, 1877; T. A. Trollope, Story of the Life of Pius IX., 2 vols., London, 1877; J. G. Shea, Life of Pius IX. and the Great Events of . . . his Pontificate, New York, 1878; J. M. Stepischnegg, Fürstbischof von Lavant, Papst Pius IX., 2 vols., Vienna, 1879; A. M. Dawson, Pius IX. and his Times, Toronto, 1880; C. Sylvain, Hist. de Pie IX., 3 vols., Lille, 1883; F. H. Reusch, Index der verbotenen Bücher, passim, 2 vols., Bonn, 1885; A. Pougeois, Hist. de Pie IX., 6 vols., Paris, 1886; J. F. Maguire, Pius IX. and his Times, London, 1893; M. Pagès Pie IX., sa vie, ses écrits, sa doctrine, Paris, 1895; E. Gebhart, Moines et papes (Alexander VI. and Pius IX.), Paris, 1896; F. Nippold, Handbuch der neuesten Kirchengeschichte, ii. 102–155, Berlin, 1901; J. Fernandez Montaña, El Syllabus de Pio IX., Madrid, 1905; J. H. Robinson and C. A. Beard, Development of Modern Europe, vol. ii. passim, New York, 1908; R. de Cesare, The Last Days of Papal Rome, 1850–70, Boston, 1909; Nippold, Papacy, pp. 113 sqq.; Nielsen, Papacy. Use also the literature under Infallibility of the Pope; Ultramontanism; and Vatican Council.

Pius X. (Giuseppe Melchior Sarto): Pope since 1903. He was born at Riese (a village near Castelfranco, 25 m. n.w. of Venice), Italy, June 2, 1835. His parents were in humble circumstances and their family was large, but such were the talents of the future pope that every effort was made for his education. His early training was received in the gymnasium at the neighboring town of Castelfranco, and in 1850 he entered the Seminary of Padua, where he remained seven years, being ordained to the priesthood in 1858. He was immediately appointed curate in Tombolo, in the diocese of Treviso, where he remained until 1867, when he was called to take control of the parish of Salzano. In 1875 he was made canon of Treviso, and three years later was appointed director of the episcopal chancellery and vicar general of the diocese. Meanwhile his talents were rapidly gaining recognition, and in 1882 he was consecrated bishop of Mantua, where he found an evil condition of affairs, made still worse by the attacks of the Italian government, which from 1871 to 1879 had rendered exercise of episcopal functions impossible. Within the eleven years of his bishopric, Sarto transformed the diocese of Mantua into a model see, and his labors 84found their fitting reward in 1893, when he was created patriarch of Venice and cardinal priest of San Bernardo. There he remained until in 1903 he was elected pope to succeed Leo XIII. (q.v.). The most striking features of the new pope's reign thus far have been the official promotion of the use of the Gregorian chant throughout all churches of the Roman Catholic communion, the separation by the French government of Church and State (1905; see France), the attack upon critical tendencies in the Church (see Modernism; and cf. Los von Rom), and a serious dispute with Spain, one object of which on the part of the Spanish government is the control of the religious orders necessitated by the settlement of monks and nuns exiled from France.

Bibliography: Pie X-Actes-encycliques-motu proprio, brefs, allocutions, etc. Texte latin avec la traduction française en regard précédés d’une notice biographique suivi d’une table générale alphabétique, 3 vols., Paris, 1906–09; A. de Waal, Papst Pius X.; Lebensbild, Munich, 1903 Eng. transl., Life of Pope Pius X., Milwaukee, 1904; A. Marchesan, Papst Pius X. in Leben und Wort, Einsiedeln, 1906; N. Peters, Papst Pius X. and das Bibelstudien, Paderborn, 1906; A. Hoch, Papst Pius X. Ein Bild kirchlicher Reformthätigkeit, Leipsic, 1907; W. E. Schmitz [Didier], The Life of Pope Pius X., New York, 1908; B. Sentzer, Pius X., Graz, 1908; N. Hilling, Die Reformen des Papstes Pius X. auf dem Gebiet der kirchenrechtlichen Gesetzgebung, Bonn, 1909; and the literature under Modernism.