MOHAMMEDANS, MISSIONS TO: The long-standing neglect of the Mohammedan world by those engaged in Christian work is explained by the mutual hostility of the two religions (see Comparative Religion, II., § 1). Yet

General Survey of the names of John of Damascus and

Missionary Peter the Venerable (qq.v.) are mem

Effort. orable for tha double fact that they studied Mohammedanism sympathet ically and wrote against it in defense of Christian ity. The former's "Conversation between a Sara cen and a Christian" (MPG, xciv. 1585 sqq.) was long the armory in the Eastern Church for contro versial writings against Islam; while Peter was the first to translate the Koran into Latin, ar~i he ad vocated the translation of the Scriptures into the language of the Saracens, treating also in his two books against Mohammedanism (ed. J. Thoma,

Leipsic, 1896) the questions of the inspiration of the Koran and the prophetship of Mohammed with true insight. Raymond Lully (q.v.) was the first to attempt actual missionary operations among Mohammedans; he devised a philosophical system to show to them the truth of Christianity, and es tablished missionary colleges for the study of orien tal languages. Five centuries of inactivity fol lowed, and then came Henry Martyn (q.v.) as the leader of a band of missionary pioneers in this field, among whom Karl Gottlieb Pfander (q.v.) is especially worthy of mention not only for his personal efforts, but for his "Balance of Truth" which impressed not merely Persia but the whole Mohammedan world. Operations have been carried on since Martyn's day by the Church Missionary Society, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, the London Missionary Society, the Church of Scotland Mission, by American Presbyterians and Methodists, and English and Australian Baptists, the fields being India, Persia, Turkey, Africa, Arabia, and the East Indies.

In Persia (q.v.) work was attempted prematurely in 1834 by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, and in 1871 the work was taken up by the Presbyterians with

Special some success, converts having been Fields. gained, with also the result of some martyrdoms (cf. the story of Mirza Ibrahim in R. E. Speer, Young Men who Over came, New York, 1905). In 1875 the Church Mis sionary Society opened work at Ispahan for Mos lems, and Yezd, Kirman, and Shirza have been occupied with large results. In Arabia (q.v.) the pioneer missionary was Ion Grant Neville Keith-Falconer (q.v.), whose work has been continued by the United Free Church of Scotland at Aden. The American Arabian Mission (organized 1889) has opened stations at Busrah, Bahrein, and Muscat, and is working directly for Mohammedans, reaching far inland by tours and hospital service. It has twenty-five missionaries on the field, three hospi tals and three outstations. The Danish Church has also opened work in this field. In the Turkish Em pire (see Turkey), the American Board occupies European Turkey, Asia Minor, and eastern Turkey; the Presbyterian Church, Syria; the Reformed Presbyterians, northern Syria; and the Church Mis sionary Society, Palestine. These together count a total of nearly 700 missionaries, but until recent years the difficulties of the problem and the terror of the Turk prevented direct work for Moslems, although by printing-presses, schools, colleges, and hospitals they have been reached indirectly and a great work of preparation has been accomplished. The entire population has the Bible in the ver nacular. Hundreds of thousands have been taught to read; the spirit of inquiry has been awakened, and educational institutions have broken the fet ters of superstition and ignorance and to a degree emancipated womanhood. The proclamation of a constitution and the deposition of the late sultan have completely changed the attitude of the government, and by freedom of the press and religious liberty made possible work which was forbidden for centuries. The translation of the Scriptures into Arabic, begun in 1848 and completed in 1865, together with the Turkish and Persian versions, marked an epoch in missions to the Mohammedan world. Work in North Africa, among Moham medans was attempted but abandoned by the Mo ravians .and the Church Missionary Society as early as 1825. The American United Presbyterian Church missionaries reached Egypt in 1854, and their work has spread along the entire Nile Valley with results

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chiefly among the Copts, but also among Moslems. Over 3,000 Moslem pupils attend their schools, and special literature for Moslems has been printed and distributed. In 1882 the Church Missionary Society resumed its work in Egypt directly among Mohammedans and has met with encouraging results. In 1880 work was begun at Algiers. It now has eighteen stations in Egypt, Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers, and Morocco, with nearly a hundred missionaries. The American Methodist Episcopal Church opened work in 1909 at Algiers. There are also smaller independent missions, and recently work has begun in the Sudan.

In Malaysia Sumatra and Java are the principal typical fields of work for Moslems. The Rhenish mission entered in 1861, and with other societies from the.Netherlands has gained over 30,000 living converts from Islam.

No direct missionary work has yet been carried on for the Mohammedans of Afghanistan and central Asia, western China, the Russian empire, central and western Arabia, and the central Sudan. In western Africa and in Nigeria every effort should be made to forestall the entrance of Islam into the pagan border-lands before this religion renders evangelization tenfold more difficult. The situation is alarming, and every mission north of the equator in Africa will sooner or later be compelled to do direct work for Moslems or imperil its very existence.

From the standpoint of missions, Islam is unique (see Mohammed, Mohammedanism, I.). CODeequently missions to Moslems have a special character and require special methods and trained workers who have knowledge of the vernacular, Arabic, the Koran, the traditions, and the doctrine and ritual of Islam. While, because of the extent of the Mohammedan world, Moslem mis-

Difficulties sion fields differ vastly one from anand other, yet in all the difficulties are

Methods. practically the same. These may be enumerated as: (1) the utter divorce between morality and religion; (2) the intolerance and pride of the Moslem creed which stands dia metrically opposed to the spirit and teaching of the Gospel; (3) the almost universal hostile atti tude of the Moslems toward a convert from their religion to Christianity, making it almost impossi ble for Moslems to confess Christ without serious risks; (4) the intellectual difficulties and popular objections to Christianity, nine-tenths of which are due to the ineradicable tendency on the part of Moslems to look upon everything carnally (they misunderstand the Bible, misinterpret its spiritual symbolism, and stumble at the doctrine of the Trin ity, the incarnation, and the atonement); (5) finally, in Turkey, Morocco, Perch, Tripoli, Afghanistan, and parts of Arabia, the union between the tem poral and spiritual power blocks effort. Apostasy in Turkey until the proclamation of the constitu tion was treason to the State. As regards methods, the distribution of God's Word is efficient, inoffen sive, strikes at the root of Islam, and is possible nearly everywhere. Medical missions overcome prejudice and have been fruitful in results as no other agency. Educational institutions disintegrate Islam. From the kindergarten to the university, all educational forces help to undermine that stupendous rock of ignorance and superstition, Moslem tradition. Street preaching is seldom possible, but the door of access to individual Mohammedans is open, and women missionaries find ready entrance into Moslem homes.

In spite of long neglect and feebleness of effort, the results direct and indirect have not been incon siderable. The latter have been far greater than the former and have in God's providence prepared the way for final victory. Much pre Results. liminary work has been accomplished; nearly every strategic center has been occupied; the Bible has been translated into every language spoken by Moslems and has a constantly increasing circulation among them. An important apologetic literature has been prepared in the chief literary languages; the attitude of the learned classes has changed for the better, and the number of inquirers and converts is steadily increasing. In North India there are at least 200 preachers who were once followers of the prophet. A special con ference of missionaries from every part of the Mos lem world met at Cairo in 1906, and from this con ference dates a revival of interest in the study of the subject, the reports and literature of the con ference calling attention to the greatness and diffi culty of this work. A similar conference is to meet at Lucknow in January, 1911.

S. M. Zwemer.

Bibliography: M. Steinsahneider, Polamische and apolopetische Litteratw in arabischer Sprorhe swischen Mudimen, Christen and Juden. Leipsic, 1877; A. Keller, Der GeiateekampJ' des Chriseantuma gegen den Islam bin sur Zed der Kreussape, ib. 1896; W. Muir, The Mohammedan Controversy, Edinburgh, 1897; idem, The Old and New Testaments . . . Moslems intuited to see and read them, ib. 1899; H. H. Jessup, The Settinp of as Crescent and the Rising of the Cross; or, Bamid Abdul Messiah, Philadelphia, 1898; Imad-ud-Din, A Mohammedan Brought to Christ: an Autobiography . . . from the Hindustani... by the late Rev. R. Clark, London, 1900; J. Rutherford and E. H. f31enny, The Goa-Pei in North Africa, ib. 1900; S. M. Zwemer, Arabia, as Cradle ofldam, New York, 1900; idem, Islam, a Challenge to Faith, ib. 1907; idem and others, Mohammedan World of Today: Papers read at the . . . Conjsrmce . . . at Cairo, . . , 1808, ib. 1906; J. Awetaranian, OeschwJde einee Muhammedanera der Christ wuade, Graeeliehterfeld, 1905; J. L. Barton, Daybreak in Turkey, Boston, 1908; Our Moslem Sidera: a Symposium, New York, 1906; C. R. Watson, Egypt and the Christian Crusade, Philadelphia, 1907; and the literature under Lully, Raymond; Martyn, Henry; Pfander, Karl Gottlieb; and also under Missions To the Heathen; and Mohammed, Mohammedanism.