4. Transubstantiation

Among the theologians of the last period of the early Church, Fulgentius of Ruspe, Facundus of Hermiane, and Isidore of Seville represent a more or less genuine Augustinian view, while besides the pseudo-Ambrose Ceesarius of Arles and Gregory the Great belong to the real istic-dynamic school in which the dynamic was growing less and less as the realistic assumed prominence. Both traditions came down side by side to the Carolingian age. The renaissance of Augustinianism which characterizes that period brought the symbolic view to the front among theologians, though not, of course, in the popular mind, and though the theologians admitted a real dynamic change in the elements and asserted as freely as Augustine that the bread "receiving the benediction becomes the body of Christ." The stage which had been reached may be seen in the controversy between Paschasius Radbertus and Ratramnus (qq.v.). There is little difference between their formulas; but Ratramnus showed a survival of the spiritualistic attitude, which was ended only in the conflict with Berengar (q.v., see also Lanfranc; Transubstantiation). Lanfranc went beyond Paschasius Radbertus only by .the single important step of asserting the real presence for the unworthy as well as for the worthy; but other opponents of Berengar went further. Guitmund of Averse, was the first of the Western upholders of this change to assert clearly the lotus ix toto et lotus in qualibet parts, " the whole in the whole and the whole in any particular "; he also used the terms substance and accidents in their later sense -asserting that the substance was changed, while the "accidents of the former essence" remained. This completed the doctrine of transubstantiation, though the word first became a dogmatic expression in the first half of the twelfth century (1215), and by its use in the confession of the fourth Lateran Council. The subtle minds of the schoolmen found much ogcupation in further refinements upon it, to which, however, little attention was paid in the final settlement of the Roman Catholic doctrine at the Council of Trent (see below, IV.). The Cateckismus Romauus, indeed (II., iv. 42), borrows from Thomas Aquinas the distinction that Christ is present not"by way of quantity" but "by way of substance "; and the doctrine of concomitance, first. brought up by Anselm, proved serviceable in defending the practise of the laity in communing only in one kind.