Memphis, and pushed on victoriously to Thebes. A great expedition sent thence into Nubia met with disaster, and Cambyses set out for home. On the way he learned that a rebellion, serious in extent and dangerous in intensity, had begun in his kingdom. A Magian whose name was Gaumata (Gomates) had put forth a claim to be Smerdis, whom Cambysea had slain, and was ready to seize the supreme power. When this terrible news reached him, he committed suicide. With him ended the elder branch of the Achaemenian line, for his successor Darius, son of Hystaspes, belonged to the younger line. A combination of nobles succeeded in slaying the false Smerdis, and Darius (522-485 B.C.) was made king. His reign began with great works of peace. He reorganized the system of satrap government, giving large autonomy but retaining effective control in all matters of moment to the empire. He dug a canal between the Nile and the Red Sea, established a system of posting over newly built roads covering large portions of his empire, secured a new respect for law and governed by it himself, and even by his enemies seems to have been held in almost universal respect. In war his success was mixed with failure, and his plans were far too great, but the achievements were nevertheless memorable. At one blow he established his dominion over the Punjab in northwestern India, while in the west he conducted a great campaign against the Greeks, only to meet with a decisive defeat at Marathon (490 B.C.). While
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ii. Xerxes, free to attack the Greeks, and with a Artaxerxes, large army he passed over Asia Minor, and Suc- crossed the Hellespont, and invaded cessors. Europe. But in the naval battle of Salamis his fleet was overwhelmed and he was compelled to return in defeat to his capital. His empire was tottering, but endured with some show of strength a century and a half longer, chiefly because of the organization which it had received at the clever hands of Darius. Xerxes fell a victim at last to intrigue and perished at the hands of assassins. With his end came the beginning of the end of Persian power. The Greeks had cause to remember him, while the Hebrews enshrined a tradition of his court in the book of Esther and called him Ahasuerus.
The next king was Artaxerxes Longimanus (Artakshatau), 465-424 B.C., in whose reign Nehemiah, his cup-bearer, and Ezra the scribe were permitted to visit Jerusalem and there set in order a new Jewish commonwealth with the organization of a church. His successor Darius II., called Darius Nothus (424-405), had an inglorious reign, suffering not a little at the hands of his sister and Queen Parysatis, who was ambitious to set her beloved son Cyrus on the throne but failed in the effort. The scepter came into the hands of the lazy Artaxerxes I. Mnemon (405-358), under whom the waning power of the empire became a byword. His successor Artaxerxes III. Ochus (358-338) restored for a time the empire, reduced the Egyptians, and put down numerous revolts which had their origin in the laxity of the previous reign. He was murdered at last by Bagoas, who tried to settle upon the throne Arses (338-336), but he proved faithless to his patron, and Bagoas poisoned him and made Darius III. Codomannus (336-331 B.C.), a great-grandson of Darius II., the king. He was unequal to the fearful emergency which came upon him. Alexander the Great, fresh from universal success, met him in battle at Arbela (331) and scattered his hosts, destroyed by fire his palaces at Persepolis, and sent his dead body to his Aged mother. The sun of Persian hegemony and independence had set. The history of the Christians under the Sassanidw is given under Nestorians (q.v.), which involves virtually the history of that period.
Bibliography: For current bibliography consult E. Wilhelm, "Peraien," in Jahreabericht der Geschichtetaiasenschaft, Berlin (an annual). On the explorations and discoveries the literature under Assyria; and the works of Lord Curzon and A. V. W. Jackson named in the text. On the inscriptions, besides the works of Jackson, and of King and Thompson, named in the text, consult: H. C. Tolman, Guide to the Old Persian Inscriptions, New York, 1902; idem, Ancient Persian Lexicon and the Texts of as Achmmenian Inscriptions, ib. 1908; idem, The Behiatun Inscription of King Darius, ib., 1908; H. C. Rawlineon, The Persian Cuneiform Inscription at Behistun, in JRAS, 1846-49; F. Spiegel, Alt-pemiachs Keiiinachrlften, Leipsic, 1881; C. Bezold, Die Achammideninschriften, Leip-
eio, 1882; T. Nöldeke, Persepolis. Die Achaemenidischen
and saaaniddachen Dsnkmnler and Inschriften von Pereepolie . . , 2 vols., Berlin, 1882; F. H. Weisabaeh, Die
Achamenidaninschriften
zweiter Art, Leipsic, 1890; F. H.
Weiasbaeh and W. Bang, Die altperaischen Keilinschriften,
Leipsic, 1893-1909; C. Bartholomse, Altiranisches W6rterbuch, Strasburg, 1904. On the history consult: B. Brisson, De repi.o Peraarum principatu, ed. J. H. Lederlin,
Strasburg, 1710; G. Rawlineon, Seven Great Monarchies
(many reprints); T. Nöldeke, Aufatitze zur Peraiechen
Geschichte, Leipsic, 1887; idem, in EacycloPo=dia Britanniea, 9th ed., art. Persia; F. Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumakunde, ii. 238-581, Leipsic, 1873; E.
Meyer, Geaddehte des Altertuma, parts 1-3, Stuttgart, 1884-1901;
J. von Pralsek, Medien und das How des Kyaxarea, Berlin,
1890; idem, Die eraten Jahre Dareioa des Hyataapiden und
der al
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