2. Obbenites

sphere of influence was confined to the ites. Netherlands and northern Germany where Dutch or Low German was the vernacular. In 1536 Menno Simons (see Simons, Menno), until then a Roman Catholic priest, united with a sect called Obbenites, from Obbe Philips. These people had only a few years prior renounced Romanism to become adherents of Melchior Hoffmann (q.v.). For a short time Hoffmann practised the baptism of adults only and rejected infant baptism, hence he is generally considered an Anabaptist; but he soon suspended this practise and a few years later expressly sanctioned the baptism of infants, while refusing to recant other teachings upon which he placed greater importance (Hulshof, Geschiedenis van de Doopagezinden to Stmatsburg, p. 180, Amsterdam, 1905). Offensive to Lutherans and Swiss Brethren alike was his faith in the prophecies of Ursula Jost of Strasburg, whose visions date from the year 1524. Hoffmann accepted her dreams as divinely inspired and consequently believed great changes in Church and State to be imminent, and that a wonderful period of liberty of conscience and missionary activity (not the millennium) was close at hand. Hoffmann developed a peculiar doctrine on the incarnation-that Christ's human nature as well as his divine nature was of heaven. He also taught the sinlessness of believers and other doctrines that were regarded as unscriptural by the Swiss Brethren, whom he considered outside of true spiritual enlightenment. His followers were known as the Melchiorites. After Hoffmann's imprisonment in Strasburg in 1533, Jan Matthysen, a baker of Haarlem, the founder of the sect of the Münster.

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ites, arose among his followers, proclaiming, on the ground of revelations with which he had been favored, that the time when the persecution was to cease was now at hand and the saints themselves were to be used of God to inaugurate a new order of things. A new state church was to be established, not like the Roman Catholic and Protestant state churches, in which saint and sinner alike were compelled by the State to hold membership, but one which should be truly the communion of the saints and used of God to bring judgment upon those who had deserved it. It is worthy of notice that some of the most offensive teachings and appalling excesses of the Münsterites are of later date (see Muenster, Anabaptists In). Matthysen's principal opponent from the ranks of the Melchiorites was Obbe Philips, who, with his brother Dirk, not only saw in him a wolf in sheep's clothing and a fanatic, but also realized that some of Melchior Hoffmann's ideas and teachings were unsound. Obbe and his friends became strict Biblicists; the Word of God was the only standard of doctrine and the New Testament the rule of life and practise; special revelations were considered dangerous and unnecessary. Christian believers must bear the cross and follow the lowly and non-resistant Nazarene; they must suffer with him if they would reign with him in the world which is to come. Only those who are willing to follow in the footsteps of the Savior and have been baptized upon the confession of their faith may be members of Christ's church. Without fear or favor Obbe Philips excommunicated all who yielded to Mansterite influences, no one being permitted to keep company with them or eat with them (according to I Cor. v. 11). This was the beginning of the practise of the avoidance of the excommunicated which was destined to lead to endless disputes and various schisms among the Mennonites. The latter name superseded the designation Obbenites after Obbe Philips had (in 1540) withdrawn from that body and Menno Simons had become their principal leader. Menno's writings afford thorough information regarding the doctrines, practises and aims of the Obbenites. Menno testifies that the Obbenites, when he identified himself with them, were "unblamable in doctrine and life," in other words, their characteristics did not undergo a change through his influence. This statement is corroborated by other evidence and is entirely trustworthy. Hoffmann's doctrine of the perfection of believers and of the impossibility of obtaining forgiveness for sins that have been knowingly committed after regeneration was rejected by the Obbenites. They insisted on the strict avoidance of the excommunicated except in cases of emergency; even the marital relation must, in a given case, be suspended. The refusal of the Waterlander churches, in Holland, to sanction marital avoidance led to the first schism among the followers of Menno, in 1555. It was on "avoidance" and on the incarnation that the Swiss Brethren differed from Menno and his friends. The former held a conference at Strasburg in South Germany in 1555 and again in 1557 and stated their position on these points. The conference of 1557 wrote a friendly letter to Menno Simons pleading for union and brotherhood notwithstanding the prevailing differences. But Menno held that a doctrine of the Scriptures was at stake. In his opinion the rejection of "avoidance" was a matter of grave importance. At the disputation of Frankenthal in the Palatinate, in 1571, the Swiss Brethren declared that " Menno is not and never has been of one mind with us." They never socepted his teaching on the points in question, although some of them, at a much later date, adopted the name Mennonites, recognizing in Menno Simons the principal representative and expositor of their fundamental teachings.

Among those Mennonites whose ancestors were the followers of Menno Simons two great groups are

to be distinguished: (1) The churches TWO of Holland and of northwestern Ger-

ChouDh of many; (2) the churches of West

Churches. Preussen, a province of Prussia, including their descendants in Russia and America. All Mennonites of South Russia, as well as those who emigrated from Russia and Prussia to America are the descendants of the churches of West Preussen. They are principally of Dutch ancestry. About the middle of the sixteenth century a number of Netherlandish families fled to what is now West Preussen, but was then a part of Poland. The majority of the Mennonites of this group, numbering not less than 110,000 souls of whom at least 30,000 are found in America, descended from those Dutch fugitives. They continued to use the Dutch language in worship until after the middle of the eighteenth century. The fact deserves notice that the number of family names in this group is surprisingly small; most of the names are represented by a large number of families; and the names found in the Russian Mennonite settlements in America are the same as those of the Mennonites of West Preussen and Russia. Emigration from Prussia to Russia began in 1788, and from both these countries to America in 1874. The language of all Mennonites of this group, including those of Russia, is German. While the churches of this group, as well as those who are the descendants of the Swiss Brethren, are thoroughly and conservatively ortho. dox on such leading doctrines as the Trinity, the deity of Christ, the atonement, the inerrancy of the Scriptures, the resurrection, etc., the Mennonites of Holland and northwestern Germany are of a de. cidedly liberal, rationalistic type. The supposition advanced by some of them that early Mennonite teaching had a liberalistic tendency has never been established by evidence. The more liberal wing of the early Mennonites, the Waterlandere who seceded from the main body in 1555, accepted unreservedly orthodox doctrines, as is established by their comprehensive confession of 1577. The confessions of all other Mennonite factions teach the same doctrines. Menno Simons, as well as Dirk Philips, a coworker with Menno; was orthodox on the preexistence and deity of Christ. It was at a much later date that the churches of Holland and northwestern Germany accepted rationalistic views. These churches are to-day scarcely holding their own as far as numbers are concerned. The Verein iguny der MennaniterVemeinden im deutwhen Reiche,

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comprising a minority only of the Mennonites of the fatherland, is dominated by rationalistic influences, and consequently the churches of West Preussen, Baden, W Orttemberg, Alsace-Lorraine and most of those of Bavaria are holding aloof from this body. The organ of the "evangelical" Mennonites of Germany is Daa Gemeindeblatt, Reihen, Baden. The principles of non-resistance and the rejection of the oath are upheld by well-nigh all American Mennonites. In Russia Mennonites are required, instead of serving in the army, to labor in the forestry work of the State. In Prussia they have the privilege of serving as nurses or drivers in the army.

In some of the Mennonite bodies in America various practises are in vogue which can be explained only from their history; particularly is this true of the Old Order Amish. It is improbable that any other denomination was called upon to endure so relentless persecution as the Swiss Brethren in the cantons of Zurich and Bern (cf. E. Maller, Geschichte der bernischen Tdufer, Frauenfeld, 1895). In consequence of their principle of non-resistance to which they strictly adhered, they were truly "as sheep for the slaughter." The severest persecution notwithstanding, extending over a period of over two hundred years, small churches continued to exist in the mountains of the canton Bern. When some of the oppressed found it.possible to assemble for worship, the services were several hours in length. The members were scattered over a large territory and the paths over the mountains were difficult at best, consequently it was found neces~ sary to provide a meal for the worshipers. This meal, coming after the services, attained a semireligious hignificanoe which it retains among the Old Order Amish Brethren, the brother in whose house the meeting is held being the host of the congregation. The custom of the ministers to enter the audience room after the congregation has sung some hymns, dates from the time when oppression had taken the place of bloody persecution, and orders were to apprehend the ministers only.

9. Doctrinal and atatietical Description; The Mennonites in America are divided in general into Old Mennonites, General Conference, Mennonite Brethren in Christ, Mennoniten Briider Gemeinde, Reformed Mennonites, and Old Order Amish.

The Old Mennonites are of "Pennsylvania Dutch" stock and of Swiss descent. They have an actual membership of about 29,000 in the United States and Canada (about 8,000 in Lancaster County, Pa.). They observe as ordinances, besides baptism of believers only (by affusion) and the Lord's Supper, feet-washing, the anointing of the sick, the kiss of charity, and the literal application of I Cor. xi. 5. Their meeting-houses are quite plain; instrumental music is not tolerated in worship. The churches are, as a rule, well supplied with ministers who are chosen from the brotherhood, special preparation not being considered essential for candidates. In case of more than one receiving the votes of the congregation, decision is obtained by lot. Few of the ministers receive financial support. Stipulated ministerial salaries are considered unscriptural. Discipline is strictly enforced. Prior to every communion service a "counsel meeting" is held to ascertain whether any member who has given offense has refused to make amends after brotherly reminder by one or two other members. In case of serious offense a public confession by the offender is asked. Only those at peace with the church and who confess peace with God may partake of the Lord's Supper. Simplicity of attire, as opposed to the ever-changing whims of fashion, is held to be a Scriptural requirement. Titles, such as Mr. or Rev., are not in use. Members of secret societies are excluded. Oaths are forbidden, as well as suits at law. Non-resistance and the condemnation of war are emphatically insisted upon. This branch of the denomination has a flourishing mission with asylums for orphans and lepers in India, home missions in various cities (three in Chicago), also orphans' homes, homes for the aged, and a sanitarium. Their church organ is the Gospel Herald, published at Scottdale, Pa., by the Mennonite Publishing House, which is owned and controlled by the church. Books and tracts on the doctrine and history of the church are also published. The works of Menno Simons and of his coworker Dirk Philips, as well as the comprehensive work on the martyrs of the church by Braght, are common possessions. Goshen College, Goshen, Ind., their largest institution of higher education in America, also Hesston Academy, Hesston, Kans., belong to this branch of Mennonites.

The General Conference Mennonites, the most progressive branch of the denomination, consisting principally of German congregations which have immigrated to the western states from Russia and Prussia, have over 13,000 members. They have abandoned most of the former peculiarities. Bethel College, Newton, Kans., is their most prominent institution of learning, besides Bluffton College, Bluffton, Ohio. They have prosperous missions among the Indians of Oklahoma and in India. Their organs are Der Bundeabote and The Mennonite, both published by the Mennonite Book Concern, Berne, Ind.

The Mennonite Brethren in Christ, numbering about 6,000 members, form a very active church. They baptize by immersion, have open communion and practise feet-washing as an ordinance. Their camp and revival meetings are conducted after the fashion of the early Methodists. They support about thirty foreign missionaries. Their organ is The Gospel Banner, of Cleveland, O.

The Mennoniten Brddergemeinde consists of German colonists who immigrated to the western states from Russia. They do not agree among themselves on the administration of baptism. The larger branch (with nearly 5,000 members), having been under English Baptist influence in Russia, immerse the applicant for baptism forward while the Crimean branch insist on backward immersion. The latter have nearly 1,000 members. The organ of the former body is Der Ziombote, published at McPherson, Kans. Tabor College, Hillsboro, Kans., belongs to this branch. They have mission stations in India and Oklahoma.

The Reformed Mennonites, called also Herrites after their founder John Herr (who in 1812 needed

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from the Old Mennonites), have about 1,700 members, living mostly in Pennsylvania. Considered even from the view-point of Menno Simons, they are ultraconservative. The well-known novel, Tillie, a Mennonite Maid (New York, 1904), by H. R. Martin, is designed to portray life among them.

The Old Order Amish, who about 1690 seceded from the Mennonites in Switzerland and Alsace, have about 4,500 members. Their congregations are necessarily small, owing to the fact that they do not build meeting-houses. They meet for worship in dwelling-houses or barns. In their opinion, under the Christian dispensation one place can not surpass another in sanctity. There must be no other house of God than his true spiritual house, the church. The fact that Solomon, at God's command, built a temple is to be considered in the same light as the sacrificial offerings under the old covenant. The principal purpose of the Mosaic ceremonies and law was to typify Christ and the New Covenant. Various usages that were permitted under the old covenant, such as resistance by force, the taking of human life, the swearing of oaths, and divorce, were abolished by Christ, who fulfilled the whole law. The Old Testament is to be interpreted in the light of the New which alone is the Christian's rule of life and worship. Building church-houses would be the first step toward ritualism, which is utterly foreign to New-Testament teaching and would mean death to true Christian piety. Among the Old Order Amish services are conducted exclusively in the German language and ordinarily require about four hours, while on communion Sunday they are continued from morning till dusk without intermission, there being always a number of ministers present. No text is taken on such occasions; the sermon begins, after introductory remarks, with the first parents of the human race and covers the content of Scripture. The subject may be said to be the wickedness of sin and the faithfulness of God toward those who love him and keep his commandments. Their hymnal is still the Ausbund, the old hymn-book of the Anabaptist Swiss Brethren, which was published for the first time in 1571 and reprinted at least twelve times in America. The hymns are sung to what are supposed to be the original tunes, which have never been written in musical notation. After meeting, dinner is served for the whole congregation by the family with whom the meeting convenes. There is no church property except hymnbooks, plain benches, and the utensils necessary to prepare a plain dinner for the worshipers. They may be said to live in a voluntary semi-communism. Their apparel and houses are kept exceedingly plain and unassuming. Carpets, curtains and wall pictures are forbidden, as is also property insurance. Their largest settlements are found in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Ontario.

Besides these divisions there are a number of smaller Mennonite bodies.

The Hutterites have about fourteen prosperous churches or communities in South Dakota, whither they immigrated from South Russia in 1874. They name themselves "Hutterite Brethren" from Jacob Rutter who was burned at the stake at Innsbruck in the Tyrol in Feb., 1536. Their organization dates from the year 1533. Although never in any sense identified with or influenced by Mennonites, they hold the same doctrines and principles excepting on one point: they are strict communists-the oldest communistic society in the United States. Their communism is based entirely upon religious principles. It is to be noted, however, that one of these congregations has discarded the doctrine of community of goods. By this denominational body the principle of non-resistance is carried to the extent of disapproval of the payment of war taxes. From the fact that their communities in Dakota are known as Bruderh6fe they received in the United States census bulletins the name Bruderhof Mennonites, which, as already indicated, is not the name by which they prefer to be known. More than usual interest attaches to them because of their possession of numerous early documents of considerable historic value. Among these is the important and comprehensive confession of faith by Peter Riedemann (d. 1566), which was reprinted, Rechenschaft unaerer Religion. . . , n.p., 1902; also some valuable "chronicles" which have been collected and published by Joseph Beck, Die Geschichtsbucher der Wiedertdvfer, Vienna, 1883. Their hymns have been collected but not published by R. Wolkan.

The Old Colony Churches (a name given to them in Russia), a body which has never deviated in doctrine or practise (including " avoidance ") from the early Mennonites, are in Manitoba and Saskatchewan. They constitute a distinct body numbering a few thousand members. Their recent elder Johann Wiebe was a man of extraordinary abilities as a preacher and leader. Another small body of the same descent, known as Die kleine Gemeinde, has also perpetuated old Mennonite customs and usages. They have a few hundred members in Manitoba and Kansas.

Among the most conservative descendants of the Swiss (Reist) Brethren is a small body, called the Old Swiss, which has a few congregations in Ohio and Indiana. The Conservative Amish Men nonites differ from the Old Order Amish in that they have meeting-houses and are somewhat less strict in discipline. They have about 2,000 mem bers. The most progressive body of Amish Men nonites, the Independent Mennonites of Illinois, have a number of churches and about 1,000 mem bers. The Defenseless Mennonites date from the year 1866 when Jacob Egli, of Indiana, seceded from the Old Order Amish on the ground that def inite conversion and religious experience had not a sufficiently prominent place in Amish teaching. They have a number of congregations. Their Eng lish organ is Zion's Call (Gridley, 111.). The Wisler Mennonites represent a schism from the Old Men nonites, from whom they seceded in 1870, believing them to be too progressive in such innovations as continued meetings and general aggressiveness. They have a few thousand members in the United States and Canada.

John Horsch.

Bibliography: : The reader should consult the literature under Anabaptists, while part of that under Baptists contains pertinent matter. The articles on the leaders

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named in the text and that on Simons, Menno, also contain references to a rich literature. Consult further: S. Blaupot ten Cate, Geschichte der Doopegezinden, 5 parts, Leeuwarden and Amsterdam, 1839-47; R. Baird , Religion in U. S. A., pp. 593-594, Glasgow, 1844; B. Ely, Kurzgefaaate Kirchen-Geschichte und' Glaubenelehre der taufgeainnten Christen and Menoniten, n.d., Lancaster, Pa.; the periodical Doopsgezinde Bifdmgen, 1860 sqq.; J. F. Funk, The Mennonite Church and her Accusers, Elkhart, Ind.. 1878; D. Musser, The Reformed Mennonite Church, Lancaster, 1878; F. Ellis and S. Evans, Hist. of Lancaster Co., Pa., chap. asvii., Lancaster, n.d.; A. Brons, Ursprung and Schickaale der Taufgeeinmten odor Mennonites, Norden, 1884; M. Schoen, Das Mennonitenthum in Weatpreusaen, Berlin, 1886; B. C. Roaeen, Geschichte der Mennoniten-0emeinde zu Hamburg and Altona, 2 parts, Hamburg, 188687; A. Mans, Unaere %olonien in Ruasland, Odessa, 1887; J. P. Maller, Die Mennonites in Oetfrieeland, Emden, 1887; H. C. Vedder, Short Hist. of the Baptiste, pp. 103-106, Philadelphia, 1891; idem, The Baptieta, pp. 24 sqq., New York, 1903; T. Armitage, Hist. of the Baptists, pp. 51, 366, New York, 1893; J. Loserth, Anabaptismus in Tirol, Vienna, 1892; idem, Communismus der mahrischen Wiedertdtufer, ib. 1894; A. H. Newman, in American Church History Series, vol ii. passim, New York, 1894; idem, Hist. of Anti-Pedobaptism, pp. 296 sqq., Philadelphia, 1897; C. H. A. Smissen, Kurzgefasete Geschichte der Tdufer, Summerfield, Ill., 1895; H. P. Krehbiel, Hist. of the General Conference of the Mennonites of North America, Canton, Ohio, 1898; G. Tumbolt, Die Wiedert�ufer, Bielefeld, 1899; wedel, Geschichte der Mennonites, 4 vols., Newton, Hans., 1900-02; E. C. Pike, The Story of the Anabaptist&, London, 1904; C. H. Smith, The Mennonites of America, Goshen, Ind., 1909.