I

IBAS (Syr. Yehiba, generally shortened into Hiba, - Donatus): Bishop of Edessa, succeeding Rabulas (q.v.) in 435; d. Oct. 28, 457. His election and retention of his office till the Second Synod of Ephesus shows that he must have been an influential person; for the views of the school of Antioch, with which he aided, were then dealfning. He was accused before the patriarch Produs and the emperor Theodosius II. of spreading the Nestorian heresy in all the Orient by means of the writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia, which, with two other Edessenes, Cumas and Probus, he translated into Syriac. Consultations in Tyre and Berytus led to a friendly understanding on Feb. 25, 449, but on Aug. 22 of the same year Ibas was deposed by the "Robber Synod" of Ephesus. The Council of Chalcedon recognized his orthodoxy on Oct. 28, 481, and restored him to his office. During 449-451 he was replaced by Nonnus, who became his successor. A letter of Ibas to Maria, partly preserved in Greek translation in the acts of the Council of Chalcedon (Mansi, Concilia, vii. 241), is important for the history of Nestorianism and the views of the author. The Emperor Justinian and the Fifth Synod of Constantinople (553) condemned it as one of the three chapters (see Three Chapter Controversy), but did not object to the orthodoxy of Ibas. The Jacobites do not recognize him.

E. Nestle.

Bibliography: J. S. Aesemanf, Bibliogsaa orientaie, L 200, iii. 1, p. 85, Rome, 1719-28; Acts of the Soopnd Coandg of EPheAus, ed. S. G. F. Perry. Oxford, 1878, Eng. transl:, Dartford, 1877; Hallier, in TU, ix. 1 (1892); J. B. Chabot, L'Pcols de Nisibe, in JA, lzzv (1890); R. Duval, La Lit. thaftre syriaqw, Paris, 1900; F. X. E. Albert, The School qfNisibie, in Catholic Uniroemity Bulletin, nL 2, pp. 180-181; DCB, iii. 192-198 (quite full).

IBN EZRA. See Aben Ezra.

ICARIA. See Communism, II., 7.

ICELAND.

[The island of Iceland, situated in the North Atlantic Ocean and belonging to Denmark, is about 600 miles west of Norway, 550 miles northwest of Scotland, and 225 miles southeast of Greenland. The extent from north to south is about 225 miles, from east to west 300 miles; area, a little more than 40,000. square miles; population (1901), 78,489; the capital is Reikiavik].

The First Christians.

The first Norse settlers (after 870) found Christian Irish hermits already in the island, and among the colonists there were some at least nominal Christians. They came to Iceland mostly by way of the British Isles, where they became acquainted with Christianity, and where many of them for practical reasons accepted baptism, or at least, allowed themselves to be signed with the cross. These Christians, however, during the first century of Icelandic history, did not constitute a compact party, nor was their religion recognized by the state. The first missionary effort was made by Thorvaldr Kodransson Vidforli ("the Far-Traveled"), in 981, but the attempt miscarried and Thorvaldr and his associate, a Saxon cleric named Frederick, were outlawed and, in 986, left the island. A systematic conversion of the islanders to Christianity took place under the Norwegian king, Olaf Tryggvason, who devoted the five years of his reign (995-1000) almost exclusively to the introduction of the new religion into Norway and its "daughter" lands (Iceland, Shetland and Faroe Islands, Greenland). After ineffectual attempts on the part of Stefnir Thorgilsson, there came to Iceland, under commission by King Olaf, the Saxon priest Thankbrandr, in 997. In spite of a good measure of success, he, too, returned to Norway in 999, convinced that the Icelanders were never to be converted to Christianity. Nevertheless, the Christian party in Iceland was materially strengthened. Upon the report brought back by his commissioner, Olaf was fain to have all the Icelanders in Norway that were still heathen put to death; but he desisted from his purpose when the Christian Icelanders Gisurr and Hjalti Skeggiason promised him to undertake a mission to their countrymen. They went to Iceland in the year 1000, and after severe conflict, won the victory for Christianity.

Characteristics and Difficulties of the Early Church.

Houses of worship, like heathen temples, were built entirely by private persons. Whoever would might build a house of God, but he had also to provide for the clergyman. So he either became a clergyman himself or hired one, who was treated quite as a servant of the proprietor. In the earliest period the priests were mostly foreigners: German, English, or Irish. In 1058 Iceland received its first native bishop, Isleif, who had no fixed income, but was constrained to locate his see at Skalholt, his ancestral estate, In this way Skalholt became the episcopal residence of the island, and was fixed there by Isleif's son and successor in office, Gizurr, who endowed the bishopric with the estate, that the bishop might thenceforth have a fixed see and an established fund. Furthermore, in 1097, and on the German plan, Gisurr instituted the tithe system in Iceland. The extent of the island also led, under Gizurr, to the creation of a second episcopal see; the bishopric of Holar was founded, for the North, whose first bishop was Jon Ogmundarson. The island was made suffragan to the archdiocese of Lund (from 1103). Owing to the dependence of the bishop and the priests upon the State and upon private persons, the clergy lapsed into worldliness, and fell eventually into the greatest immorality and ignorance. The medieval Church in Iceland until about 1150 stands in abrupt contrast to the Church in other parts of the West; celibacy did not prevail; lay patronage was everywhere the rule; the Church had no legislative power, and the clergy were subject to the temporal law and not exempt from taxation.

Dating from 1152, Iceland was suffragan to the archdiocese of Nidaros (Trondhjem). Now began a conflict between Church and State which evoked the wildest turmoil, and finally compelled the archbishop of Nidaros to draw the reins tighter, and to force Norwegian bishops upon the island

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Iceland Idealism (c. 1238). These, naturally, were doubly energetic in their advocacy of the canon law, and above all they antagonized lay patronage. Conflict From the middle of the thirteenth between century, most of the Icelandic bishops Church were foreigners. However, the few and State; native ones labored zealously in the Degeneracy. spirit of the metropolitan. The conflict between Church and State flamed up with especial vehemence when, in 1275, Bishop Arni Thorlaksson of Skalholt attempted to carry the new church law, thoroughly based on the canon law, through the Alting (the Icelandic legislative assembly). By the introduction of this new church law, the ecclesiastical power triumphed over the temporal, and the authority of the spirituality was on a like footing with that in other countries of the West. But by the same process the great national interest which the clergy had exhibited in earlier times vanished. From the earliest times, in fact, there had flourished not only at the episcopal sees, but also about a number of priestly residences, schools of science and especially of national history. Priests like Saemundr and Ari were at the same time students of the history of Iceland. These priestly schools were supplemented by schools in connection with the cloisters. The oldest cloister of Iceland is the Benedictine at Thingeyrar, founded in 1133, and this was followed by six more for monks and two for nuns, all founded by the Benedictine and Augustinian orders. The stirring intellectual in dustry of the clergy, which prevailed in the island until about the middle of the thirteenth century, now began to -cease. Stress was laid on externals, and people were generally satisfied if the layman knew his Credo and Paternoster, and perchance the Ave Maria. Conduct was for the most part dis regarded by the clergy, who shut their eyes to superstition and immorality, and became them selves avaricious and immoral. An improvement did not set in until the Icelanders had absorbed the spirit of the Lutheran doctrine in "flesh and blood." The Reformation, like the introduction of Chris tianity, in Iceland was helped forward by royal mandate. From the fourteenth cen The Refor- tury the island, along with Norway, mation. had accrued to Denmark. After Chris tian III., in 1536, had adopted Lu ther's doctrine in his dominion proper, he labored zealously to advance the same in Iceland as well. A number of clergymen were already on the ground who had learned to know the new doctrine, but they met with vehement opposition on the part of the Icelandic bishops and the Icelandic people. Among them was Oddr Gottskalksson, who rendered into Icelandic the New Testament according to Luther's translation. A command of King Christian III. was read aloud in the Alting, to the effect that the new church régime should be adopted in the island, but Bishop Jon Arason of Holar and the people of the North, as well as many in the diocese of Skal holt, stayed loyally papal. Only after these men were out of the way was the opposition broken. At the Alting of 1551 the Danish church system was recognized as binding for all Iceland. Most of the church and cloister estates were confiscated

by Danish officials for the king; church revenues, such as the episcopal tithes, likewise flowed into the royal exchequer. By this process the incomes of the clergy, who were elected by the congregation and inducted by the government, became somewhat meager. There consequently ensued a dearth of suitable preachers, and not infrequently one pastor would assume charge of several parishes combined. At the head of these clergymen stood the bishops of Holar and Skalholt, likewise designated by the Danish king. Of the episcopal sees, that of Holar came to an end in 1801, whereas, prior to that event, the bishopric of Skalholt had been transferred to the present capital, Reikiavik. Moreover, the immorality among laity and clergy remained very much the same as of old. For this reason the adherents of the new doctrine deported themselves with a fanaticism that calls to mind the uprising of the Anabaptists. Cloisters were destroyed, churches plundered, and many valuable literary treasures were obliterated. .Hence the introduction of the Reformation has been repeatedly described by the Icelanders themselves as a national misfortune. Only in the course of the seventeenth century did Luther's spirit penetrate deeper into the hearts of the people; by which time, thanks to the fostering of the art of printing (introduced about 1550), and the founding of the Latin schools at Holar (1552) and Skalholt (1553), scientific interest had been awakened anew. No inconsiderable influence in this direction had also been contributed by Bishop Gudbrandur Thorlti,ksson of Holar, who published, in 1584, the first complete translation of the Bible in the mother tongue, and issued several collections of good spiritual hymns. The devotional poetry inaugurated by Gudbrandur achieved its crowning success about one hundred years later, in the passion psalms of Hallgrimur Pjetursson.

Iceland is now thoroughly Protestant, although according to the law of the year 1874, there prevails

complete freedom of belief. All atPresent tempts to reinstate Roman CatholConditions. icism in the island have miscarried.

At the head of the church system stands the bishop of Reikiavik, who supervises the common-school system. The country is divided into twenty church districts, each directed by a superintendent. There are 141 parishes in Iceland, comprising 299 churches. The junior clergy are trained in the theological school at Reikiavik, where they are accustomed to spend three years after completing the gymnasium course, and are then practically inducted into the pastoral office by an older clergyman.

E. Mogk.

Bibliography: A very rich list of Icelandic literature and of books about Iceland is given in the British Museum Catalogue, where is found also a list of the "Icelandic postReformation Bishops." Sources for study are: Area Isldnderbuch, ed. W. Golther, Halle, 1892; Biskupas6gur, 2 vols., Copenhagen, 1858-78; Sturlunga Saga, ed. G. Vigfusson, 2 vols., Oxford, 1878; Diplomatarium Ialandicum, vols. i.-viii., Copenhagen, 1857-1908; important contents are in the Heimakringla of Snorri, ed. F. Jonsson, Copenhagen, 1893-1901. The oldest Christian statutes are in theGrhgfis, ed. with preface, V. Finxn, 3 vols., Copenhagen, 1850-83. For later times, of service are: Biskupa annalar ions Egilssonar, ed. J. Sigurdson, i. 15-136, Safn til Sbgu Islands; and Annalar Bjiirns a Skardsa (1400-1645),

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2 vols., Hrappseym, 1774-75. Consult further: Finnur Johannsaus, Hist. eccl. Islandia=, 4 vols., Copenhagen, 1772-78; J. Espolin, Islands arbaekur (1263-1832), 12 vols., ib., 1824-55; P. Petureson, Hist. awl. Islandfa (1740-1840), ib., 1841; P. A. Munch, Dot Norake Folks Historie, 6 vols., Christiania, 1852-63; K. Maurer, Die Bekehrung des norwegischen Stammes rum Christentum, 2 vols., Munich, 1855-58; idem, Island von seiner erden Entdeekung bis rum Untergang des Freistaates, ib., 1874; J. E. W. Sam Udsigt over den norske Historie, 4 vols., Christiania. 1873-91; A. D. Jorgensen, Den nordisks Kirkes Grundlteggelse, 2 vols., Copenhagen, 1874-76; C. A. V. Conybeare, Iceland; its PlaceintheHist. of European Inatitutions, London, 1877; Letitia M. Macooll, The Story of Iceland, ib. 1887; Stories of the Bishops of Iceland 1066 1330, ib. 1895; The Book of as Settlement of Iceland, transl. by T. Ellwood, Kendal, 1898; L- Livre des Islandais du prltre Ari le Savant, Liége, 1898; Bjorn Olsen, Um Kriatnitbkuna arid 1,000, Reikiavik, 1900; P. Herrmann, Island in Verganpenheit und Gegenwart, Leipsic, 1907.