⁶"Now ought we to praise the founder of the heavenly kingdom, the power of the Creator, and his wisdom, the deeds of the Father of Glory; how he, since he is God eternal, is the author of all things wonderful, and the one who first created the heaven as a roof for the sons of men, then the earth—the almighty guardian of the human race." Bede explains that he gives the sense, not the order of words, and wisely remarks that no verses can be transferred verbatim from one language to another, no matter how well it may be done, without losing much of their beauty and power.

⁸Cajetan bore witness to Luther's ability when he exclaimed, "Ego nolo amplius cum hac bestia colloqui: habet enim profundos oculos et mirabiles speculationes in capite suo." (I do not want to have any further parley with that beast; for he has sharp eyes and wonderful speculations in his head.)

⁹"Nam si modo valeat mea auctoritas vivum exire nunquam patiar (I shall never permit him to depart alive if my authority is great enough)." Calvin to Farel, Feb. 13, 1546 (cf. Calvin's Letters, Eng. transl., ii. 33).

¹⁰P. C. Lucius, Die Therapeuten und ihre Stellung in der Askese, Strasburg, 1880, has proved that the De vita contemplativa was not written by Philo and consequently the classic passage—"In every house there is a sacred shrine, which is called the holy place, and the monastery in which they [the Therapeutics] retire by themselves, and perform all the mysteries of a holy life . . . studying in that place the laws and the inspired words through the prophets and hymns and the other [writings), by which knowledge and piety are increased and perfected" (De vita contempl., iii.), which is the only direct reference to the threefold division of the canon found in Philo's works (genuine and pretended)—must be given up. [The passage is translated by C. D. Yonge, Philo, in Bohn's Library, iv. 6. F. C. Conybeare, in his edition of Philo About the Contemplative Life (Oxford, 1895) defends the Philonian authorship.]

¹¹This passage in condensed form is as follows: "We have twenty-two books containing the records of all the past times, and justly believed to be inspired. Five of them are Moses'. These contain his laws and the traditions of the origin of mankind till his death. From Moses to Artaxerxes the prophets made the record in thirteen books. The remaining four books contain hymns to God, and precepts for the conduct of human life. The history written since that day, though accurate, is not so much esteemed, because there has not been an exact succession of prophets. No one dares add to, take from, or alter them; but all Jews esteem these books to contain divine doctrines, and are willing to die for them."

¹²   This document is the source of the familiar division of Irish saints into three "orders." It states that the first order belonged to the time of Patrick. They were all bishops, 350 in number, founders of churches. They had one head, Christ, and one lord, Patrick; they observed one mass, one celebration, and one tonsure from ear to ear; they kept one Easter, on the fourteenth day of the moon after the vernal equinox; and what was excommunicated by one church all excommunicated. They did not reject the services and society of women, because, founded on the rock of Christ, they feared not the blast of temptation. This order lasted through four reigns, and its members were all bishops, from the Romans, the Franks, the Britons, and the Irish (Scotti).
   In the second order bishops were few and presbyters many, 300 in number. They had one head, our Lord; they celebrated different masses and had different rules, but their Easter and tonsure were as in the first order. They rejected the services of women, separating them from the monasteries. They lasted through four reigns, and received a mass from Bishop David, and Gildas, and Docus, the Britons.
   The members of the third order were holy presbyters and a few bishops, 100 in all. They dwelt in solitary places, and lived on herbs and water and alms, shunning private property. Their rules, masses, tonsure, and Easter were all different, and they lived through four reigns.
   The first order was sanctissimus; the second, sanctus sanctorum; the third, sanctus. They were like the sun, the moon, the dawn. These three orders were foreseen by Patrick is a vision from on high. Consult Haddan and Stubbs, ii. 292–294.

¹³   Irish monasticism of the sixth century was very different from that of a later period. It has been characterized as the transition from the hermit life to the religious orders of the Middle Ages—a transition that was soon made in the East, but in Ireland proceeded more slowly and lasted till the subjection to Rome. The primitive Irish monasteries were of the same type as those of Egypt and Syria. The nucleus was a church or oratory, always oblong (from ten to forty feet in length, rarely sixty), and without chancel, aisles, or apse. No remains have been found showing any approach to the basilica form or anything of Roman type. Round the church were grouped "beehive" huts or cells, each for a single occupant, and the whole was surrounded by a wall or rampart, with a ditch, and a hedge or palisade on top. There is mention of kitchens and the "great house" (refectory); and there were also guest houses, storehouses and barns, workshops, and the like. The so-called "Round Towers" are always connected with ecclesiastical foundations, and belong for the most part to the ninth and tenth centuries. They probably served as bell-towers, for refuge or defense in case of attack, and as beacons and lighthouses.
   The whole establishment was called a "city" (civitas), and the designation is not inapt for the larger communities, with two or three thousand members, each having his own house, and its complex of public or common buildings. The first step in the foundation was to obtain a site, which was frequently given by the chieftain when he was converted, and sometimes was his fortress. It was often necessarily in the forest, as the extent of cleared land was very limited. The building material was most commonly wood or wattles and clay, but stone sometimes was used; the earliest stone structures are without mortar. As the first building operation was commonly the driving of stakes, "to drive" came to be the usual expression to designate the founding of a monastery. Each monastery had its own rules, followed also by the affiliated houses, which were governed by a local head under the abbot. The abbot was not chosen by the monks, but was appointed by the chieftain, generally from his own family or that of the founder, and hence was known as the coarb or heir of the founder. He was seldom a bishop, but there were always one or more bishops in each community, always subject, however, to the abbot. Poverty, chastity, and obedience were considered essential. The rule of St. Columban no doubt represents the life and practise of the Irish monasteries, particularly that at Bangor, of which Columban had been a member. Adamnan also gives many interesting details of the life at Iona in Columba' s time and this monastery, doubtless, did not differ materially from the others. Divine service and private devotion, study, and manual labor occupied the time of the brethren. Sundays and saints' days were marked by celebration of the Eucharist, rest from toil, and an allowance of better food. Easter was the chief festival and during the Paschales Dies (from Easter to Whitsunday) there was some relaxation in the severity of discipline. Christmas was the other great festival. Wednesdays and Fridays were fast-days except during the Paschales Dies. Lent was strictly kept, and the forty days before Christmas were observed by some in a like manner. Holy Scripture was the chief object of study and the Psalms were learned by heart. Much effort was spent in the copying of books and there are two Irish manuscripts of the Vulgate, known respectively as the Book of Kells and the Book of Durrow and dating from the seventh century, which are among the finest extant specimens of illuminated work. It is a question where such work was done, as it must have been impossible in the poorly lighted cells; perhaps it was executed in the open air, and we read of the monks writing "on their knees." Besides writing, the production and preparation of food was the chief labor. Strangers were hospitably received and fasts were relaxed in their honor. Consult: Reeves's Adamnan, pp, 339–369, Dublin, 1857; J. T. Fowler's Adamnan, pp, xxxvii.–1, Oxford, 1894; J. Lanigan, Ecclesiastical History, iv. 348 sqq., Dublin, 1829; F. E. Warren, Liturgy and Ritual, chap, ii., Oxford, 1881; G. T. Stokes, Ireland and the Celtic Church, lectures ix. and xi.; G. Petrie, Ecclesiastical Architecture of Ireland, Dublin, 1845; Margaret Stokes, Early Christian Art in Ireland, London, 1887; J. Anderson, Scotland in Early Christian Times, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1881; J. Healy, Insula sanctorum, pp, 1159, Dublin, 1890.

¹⁴At the Council of Basel Cesarini's attitude toward the Hussites was highly conciliatory; and he urged a thorough reformation of ecclesiastical abuses as the only safeguard against further schisms.—A. H. N.

¹⁵The point at issue was lay patronage. British law having conferred upon landowners the right to nominate to pastorates in their possessions.—A. H. N.