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Mongol khans. The metropolitans imposed upon the opponents of the grand duke bans and interdicts and helped them to unite Russia. Especially is this true of the two most distinguished ones, Peter (d. 1326) who designated Moscow for his burial-place, and Alexei. When Vladimir became the second metropolitan late in 1354, it was to the advantage of Moscow. The relation of the metropolitans to the patriarch was changed by the fall of Constantinople, shortly before the expulsion of the Mongols from Russia. In 1436 the metropolitan Isidore sent from Constantinople to Moscow was imprisoned by the grand duke because he had accepted the Florentine union. The next metropolitan, Jonas, was appointed without confirmation from the patriarch, and Gennadius of Constantinople even granted the Russian Church the right to choose and consecrate its own metropolitans. This practically meant, however, the subjugation of the church to the grand dukes, and no less than eight metropolitans were removed by these princes between the consecration of Jonas and the erection of the Russian patriarchate. During the reign of Ivan IV., " the Terrible," the wilful caprice of that prince dominated the church and the metropolitan Daniel was compelled to validate his fourth marriage. In consequence of this dependence of the metropolitans on the grand dukes, the church of Lithuania separated from that of Moscow and received a metropolitan of its own at Kief. Moscow now retained the archdioceses of Novgorod, Kazan, and Rostov, and the dioceses of Susdal, Ryazan, Tver, Sarai, Kolomna, Smolensk, and Perm. The grand duke of Moscow regarded himself as the real protector of the orthodox faith, and Moscow became a thud Rome. It was during this period that Christianity first took deep root in Russia. Monasteries multiplied, among them being that of St. Sergius of Radonesh (d. 1391), where communal monastic life was adopted, as it was at the Cyrillic monastery on the White Sea and at Joseph Sanin's cloister at Volokalamsk. Nil Sorski (1433-1508), on the other hand, defended the ideal of the sketists (see ATHOS), even combining with his pupil Vassian and the grand duke in an unsuccessful attempt to secure the secularization of monastic property at the Moscow Synod of 1503. The sole heresies reported at this period were the " Jewish sect " and the Strigolniki at Novgorod. The latter, about 1375, represented essentially a protest against simoniacal priests, and were soon suppressed. The " Jewish sect " is said to have been founded at Novgorod about a century later by a Jew named Skhariyah (Zachariah), its tenets including denial of the Virgin, icons, crosses, sacraments, fasting, and holy days. Archbishop Gennadius of Novgorod instituted stern measures against them, despite the influence they had obtained over Ivan III.; and after about 1520 nothing more is heard of the sect. Far more important than the Moscow Synod of 1503 was the " Synod of a Hundred Chapters," at stoglav in 1551, which sought to preserve genuine traditon and to improve moral conditions. Its measures were later disavowed, however, as sanctioning the shibboleth of the Raskolniki (q.v.); the sign of the cross with two fingers, and the double Hallelu-

iah, the triple Halleluiah, and shaving the beard being rejected as Latin heresies. Gennadius of Novgorod now sought, about 1493, to unite the Slavic translations of the Bible, while Macarius prepared Russian lectionaries for the entire year (1541, 1552). But despite the growth of a literature in which translations were still more important than original productions, even the Russian bishops remained ignorant, and Protestant travelers in the land considered Christianity almost non-existent.

In 1589 Job was consecrated independent patriarch of Russia, as one of the four of the Orthodox Greek Church. The Patriarch Hermogen, aided by hatred of and aversion to the Latin Church, prevented the Poles from becoming masters of Moscow during the period of chaos. When Michael Roman-

off ascended the throne, his father was

3. From made patriarch and virtual regent the Patri- (1619), and similar power was enjoyed

(q.v.). The latter, in 1667, carried through a reform of the liturgy, thus leading to the great schism of the Raskolniki. In 1654 the metropolitanate of Kief was reunited, after long preliminary negotiations, with Moscow. At Kief, moreover, contact with the West and polemics with the Roman Catholic Church had resulted in the growth of a type of scholastic learning, and in 1631 Petrus Mogilas (q.v.) had founded a college in the city. From this school proceeded many distinguished men-Silvester Medviedeff, who began the controversy over the instant of the transformation of the bread in the Eucharist, in which for the first time the methods of Western theology were employed; Dimitri, metropolitan of Rostov (1651-1709); Stephan Yavorski (d. 1722), patriarch and the assistant of Peter the Great, who founded the holy synod to take the place of the patriarch; and Theophanes Prokopovich (d. 1736), archbishop of Novgorod, ecclesiastical adviser of Peter, and for a century the authority in dogmatics and pulpit oratory. In 1764 the monasteries were secularized under Peter III. and Catharine II. The early part of the reign of Alexander I., like the rule of Catharine, favored the Enlightenment, but gradually the czar turned toward mysticism. In 1812 a Bible society was established, but in 1824 the orthodox archimandrite Photius of Novgorod changed the course of events. The Bible society and the Protestant mission in Transcaucasia were suppressed under Nicholas I., and in 1835 with Protassoff began the series of conservative chief procurators of the Holy Synod, later ably represented by Pobiedonostsev (q.v.), a firm opponent of Protestantism. The dogmatic theology of Russia during the nineteenth century was likewise predominantly anti-Protestant, until Yanisheff brought on a more favorable reaction. At the present time notable services are rendered, especially in the department of church history. The theological seminaries in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kief, and Kazan have their own journals; the first three have published translations of the Church Fathers and the last a translation of the ecumenical councils.

II. Statistics: According to the census of 1897, published in1905, the population of European and Asiatic Russia, numbering 125,640,021 (not including Fin-