| Christian Estimate of Plato (§ 1). |
| Platonic Philosophy Spiritual (§ 2). |
| Platonic Philosophy Theistic (§ 3). |
| Platonic Philosophy Teleological and Ethical (§ 4). |
| Religion. Rewards, and Punishment in Plato (§ 5). |
| Merits and Defects (§ 6). |
| Later Platonic Schools (§ 7). |
"The peculiarity of the Platonic philosophy," says Hegel, in his "History of Philosophy" (vol. ii.), "is precisely this direction toward the supersensuous world, -- it seeks the elevation of consciousness into the realm of spirit. The Christian religion also has set up this high principle, that the internal spiritual essence of man is his true essence, and has made it the universal principle." Some of the early Fathers recognized a Christian element in Plato, and ascribed to him a kind of propædeutic office and relation toward Christianity. Clement of Alexandria calls philosophy "a sort of preliminary discipline for those who lived before the coming of Christ," and adds, "Perhaps we may say it was given to the Greeks with this special object; for philosophy was to the Greeks what the law was to the Jews, -a schoolmaster to bring them to Christ (cf. Strom., I, v.-xx.; Eng. transl., ANF, ii. 305-324). "The Platonic dogmas," says Justin Martyr, "are not foreign to Christianity. If we Christians say that all things were created and ordered by God, we seem to enounce a doctrine of Plato; and, between our view of the being of God and his, the article appears to make the only difference" (cf. II Apol., xiii.). "Justin" (says Ackermann, Das Christliche im Plato, chap. i., Hamburg, 1835; Eng. transl., The Christian Element in Plato, Edinburgh, 1861), "Justin was, as he himself relates, an enthusiastic admirer of Plato before he found in the Gospel that full satisfaction which he had sought earnestly, but in vain, in philosophy. And, though the Gospel stood infinitely higher in his view than the Platonic philosophy, yet he regarded the latter as a preliminary stage to the former. And in the same way did other apologetic writers express themselves concerning Plato and his philosophy, especially Athenagoras, the most spirited, and philosophically most important of them all, whose `Apology' is one of the most admirable works of Christian antiquity." The Fathers of the early Church sought to explain the striking resemblance between the doctrines of Plato and those of
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Perhaps the most obvious and striking feature of the Platonic philosophy is that it is preeminently spiritual. Hegel speaks of "this direction toward the supersensuous world," this "elevation of consciousness into the realm of spirit," as "the peculiarity of the Platonic philosophy." There is no doctrine on which Plato more frequently or more strenuously insists than this, that soul is not only superior to body, but prior to it in order of time, and that not merely as it exists in the being of God, but in every order of existence. The soul of the world existed first, and then it was clothed with a material body. The souls which animate the sun, moon, and stars, existed before the bodies which they inhabit (Timæus). The preexistence of human souls is one of the arguments on which he relies to prove their immortality (Phædo, 73-76). Among the other arguments by which he demonstrates the immortality of the soul and its exalted dignity are these: that the soul leads and rules the body, and therein resembles the immortal gods (ib. 80); that the soul is capable of apprehending eternal and immutable ideas, and communing with things unseen and eternal, and so must partake of their nature (ib. 79); that, as consciousness is single and simple, so the soul itself is uncompounded, and hence incapable of dissolution (ib. 78); that soul, being everywhere the cause and source of life, and every way diametrically opposite to death, can not be conceived as dying, any more than fire can be conceived as becoming cold (ib. 102-107); that soul, being self-moved, and the source of all life and motion, can never cease to live and move (Phædrus, 245) ; that diseases of the body do not reach to the soul; and vice, which is a disease of the soul, corrupts its moral quality, but has no power or tendency to destroy its essence ("Republic," 610), etc. Spiritual entities are the only real existences- material things are perpetually changing, and flowing into and out of existence. God is: the world becomes, and passes away. The soul is: the body is ever changing, as a garment. Soul or ideas, which are spiritual entities, are the only true causes; God being the first cause why every thing is, and ideas being the secondary causes why things are such as they are (Phædo, 100-101). Mind and will are the real cause of all motion and action in the world, just as truly as of all human motion and action. According to the striking illustration in the Phædo (98, 99), the cause of Socrates awaiting death in the prison, instead of making his escape as his friends urged him to do, was that he chose to do so from a sense of duty; and, if he had chosen to run away, his bones and muscles would have been only the means or instruments of the flight of which his mind and will would have been the cause. And just so it is in all the phenomena of nature, in all the motions and changes of the material cosmos. And life in the highest sense, what we call spiritual and eternal life, all that deserves the name of life, is in and of and from the soul, which matter only contaminates and clouds, and the body only clogs and entombs (Gorgias, 492, 493). Platonism, as well as Christianity, says, Look not at the things which are seen, but at the things which are not seen; for the things which are seen are temporal, only for a season; but the things which are not seen are eternal (cf. II Cor. iv. 18).
The philosophy of Plato is eminently theistic. "God," he says, in his " Republic " (716 A), " is (literally, holds) the beginning, middle, and end of all things. He is the supreme mind or reason, the efficient cause of all things, eternal, unchangeable, all-knowing, all-powerful, all-pervading, and all-controlling, just, holy, wise, and good, the absolutely perfect, the beginning of all truth, the fountain of all law and justice, the source of all order and beauty, and especially the cause of all good " (Philebus, Phædo, Timæus, "Republic," and "Laws," passim). God represents, he impersonates, he is the true, the beautiful, but, above all, the good. Just how Plato conceived these " ideas" to be related to the divine mind is disputed. Indiscussing the good, sometimes it is difficult to determine whether he means by it an idea, an attribute, a principle, a power, or a personal God. But he leaves no doubt as to his actual belief in the divine personality. God is the reason (the intelligence, Phædo, 97 C) and the good ("Republic," 508 C) ; but he is also the artificer, the maker, the Father, the supreme ruler, who begets, disposes, and orders all (cf. Timæus, with places just cited). He is Theos and Ho Theos (Phædo, 106 D, and often elsewhere). Plato often speaks also of gods in the plural; but to him, as to all the best minds of antiquity, the inferior deities are the children, the servants, the ministers, the angels, of the supreme God (Timæus, 41). Unity is an essential element of perfection. There is but one highest and best the Most High, the Supreme Good, God in the true and proper sense is one. The Supreme God only is eternal, he only hath immortality in himself. The immortality of the inferior deities is derived, imparted to them by their Father and the Father of all, and is dependent on his will (Timæus, 41). God made the world by introducing order and beauty into chaotic matter, and putting into it a living, moving,
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The Platonic philosophy is teleological. Final causes, together with rational and spiritual agencies, are the only causes that are worthy of the study of the philosopher: indeed, no others deserve the name (Phædo, 98 sqq.). If mind is the cause of all things, mind must dispose all things for the best; and when it is known how anything may best be made or disposed, then, and then only, is it known how it is and the cause of its being so (Phædo, 97). Material causes are no causes; and inquiry into them is impertinent, unphilosophical, not to say impious and absurd. Thus did Plato build up a system of rational psychology, cosmology, and theology, all of which are largely teleological, on the twofold basis of a priori reasoning and mythology, in other words, of reason and tradition, including the idea of a primitive revelation. The eschatology of the Phædo, the Gorgias, and the "Republic," is professedly a mythos, though he insists that it is also a logos ("Republic," 523). His cosmology he professes to have heard from some one (Phædo, 108 D); and his theology in the Timæus purports to have been derived by tradition from the ancients, who were the offspring of the gods, and who must, of course, have known the truth about their own ancestors (40 C). Yet the whole structure is manifestly the work of his own reason and creative imagination; and the central doctrine of the whole is, that God made and governs the world with constant reference to the highest possible good; and "ideas" are the powers, or, in the phraseology of modern science, the "forces," by which the end was to be accomplished. The philosophy of Plato is preeminently ethical, and his ethics are remarkably Christian. Only one of his dialogues was classified by the ancients as "physical,' and that (the Timæus) is largely theological. The political dialogues treat politics as a part of ethics,--ethics as applied to the State. Besides the four virtues as usually classified by Greek moralists,--viz., temperance, courage, justice, and wisdom,--Plato recognized as virtues humility and meekness, which the Greeks generally despised, and holiness, which they ignored (Euthyphron); and he teaches the duty of non-retaliation and non-resistance as strenuously, not to say paradoxically, as it is taught in the Sermon on the Mount (Critias, 49). That it is better to suffer wrong than to do wrong is a prominent doctrine of the Gorgias (479 E, 508 C). But as the highest " idea " is that of the good, so the highest excellence of which man is capable is likeness to God, the supreme and absolute good. A philosopher, who is Plato's ideal, is a lover of wisdom, of truth, of justice, of goodness (" Republic," book vi.), of God, and, by the contemplation and imitation of his virtues, becomes like him as far as it is possible for man to resemble God (ib. 613 A, B).
Plato is preeminently a religious philosopher. His ethics, his politics, and his physics are all based on his theology and his religion. Natural and moral obligations, social and civil duties, duties to parents and elders, to kindred and strangers, to neighbors and friends, are all religious duties (" Laws," ix. 881 A, xi. 931 A). Not only is God the lawgiver and ruler of the universe, but his law is the source and ground of all human law and justice. "That the gods not only exist, but that they are good, and honor and reward justice far more than men do, is the most beautiful and the best preamble to all laws" ("Laws," x. 887). Accordingly, in the "Republic" and the "Laws," the author often prefaces the most important sections of his legislation with some such preamble, exhortation, or, as Jowett calls it, sermon, setting forth the divine authority by which it is sanctioned and enforced. Plato gives prominence also to the doctrine of a future state of rewards and punishments. At death, by an inevitable law of its own being, as well as by the appointment of God, every soul goes to its own place; the evil gravitating to the evil, and the good rising to the supreme good. When they come before their judge, perhaps after a long series of transmigrations, each of which is the reward or punishment of the preceding, those who have lived virtuous and holy lives, and those who have not, are separated from each other. The wicked whose sins are curable are subjected to sufferings in the lower world, which are more or less severe, and more or leas protracted, according to their deserts. The incurably wicked are hurled down to Tartarus, whence they never go out, where they are punished forever as a spectacle and warning to others (Gorgias, 523 sqq.; Phædo, 113 D). Those, on the other hand, who have lived virtuously and piously, especially those who have purified their hearts and lives by philosophy, will live without bodies (Phædo, 114 C), with the gods, and in places that are bright and beautiful beyond description.
Allusion only may be made to other characteristic features of Plato's philosophy, such, for example, as his doctrine of "ideas,"--the true, the beautiful, the good, the holy, and the like, which,
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But a passing glance may be given to the radical defects and imperfections of Plato's best teachings—his inadequate conception of the nature of sin as involuntary, the result of ignorance, a misfortune, and a disease in the soul, rather than a transgression of the divine law; his consequent erroneous ideas of its cure by successive transmigrations on earth, and protracted pains in purgatory, and by philosophy; his philosophy of the origin of evil, viz., in the refractory nature of matter, which must therefore be gotten rid of by bodily mortification, and by the death of the body without a resurrection, before the soul can arrive at its perfection; his utter inability to conceive of atonement, free forgiveness, regenerating grace, and salvation for the masses, a fortiori for the chief of sinners; the doubt and uncertainty of his best religious teachings, especially about the future life ("Apology," 40 E, 42; Phædo, 107 C); and the utter want in his system of the grace, even more than of the truth, that have come to us by Jesus Christ, for, after all, Platonism is not so deficient in the wisdom of God as it is in the power of God unto salvation. The "Republic," for example, proposes to overcome the selfishness of human nature by constitutions and laws and education, instead of a new heart and a new spirit, by community of goods and of wives, instead of loyalty and love to a divine-human person like Jesus Christ.
In the Middle and the New Academy, there was always more or less tendency to skepticism, growing out of the Platonic doctrine of the uncertainty of all human knowledge except that of "ideas." The Neo-Platonists (see NEO-PLATONISM), on the other hand, inclined toward dogmatism, mysticism, asceticism, theosophy, and even thaumaturgy, thus developing seeds of error that lay in the teaching of their master. After the Christian era, among those who were more or less the followers of Plato, were, at one extreme, the devout and believing Plutarch the author of "Delay of the Deity in the Punishment of the Wicked, and the practical and sagacious Galen, whose work on the "Uses of the Parts of the Human Body" is an anticipation of the Bridgewater Treatises, both of whom, as also Socrates, would have accepted Christianity if they had come within the scope of its influence; and, at the other extreme, Porphyry and the Emperor Julian, who wielded the weapons of philosophy in direct hostility to the religion of Christ; while intermediate between them the major part of the philosophers of the Neo-Platonic and eclectic schools who came in contact with Christianity went on their way in indifference, neglect, or contempt of the religion of the crucified Nazarene. But not a few of the followers of Plato discovered a kindred and congenial element in the eminent spirituality of the Christian doctrines and the lofty ethics of the Christian life, and, coming in through the vestibule of the Academy, became some of the most illustrious of the Fathers and Doctors of the early Church. And many of the early Christians, in turn, found peculiar attractions in the doctrines of Plato, and employed them as weapons for the defense and extension of Christianity, or cast the truths of Christianity in a Platonic mold. The doctrines of the Logos and the Trinity received their shape from Greek Fathers, who, if not trained in the schools, were much influenced, directly or indirectly, by the Platonic philosophy, particularly in its Jewish-Alexandrian form. That errors and corruptions crept into the Church from this source can not be denied. But from the same source it derived no small additions, both to its numbers and its strength. Among the most illustrious of the Fathers who were more or less Platonic, may be named Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, Theophilus, Irenwus, Hippolytus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Minutius Felix, Eusebius, Methodius, Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, and St. Augustine. Plato was the divine philosopher of the earlier Christian centuries; in the Middle Ages Aristotle succeeded to his place. But in every period of the history of the Church, some of the brightest ornaments of literature, philosophy, and religion-such men as Anselm, Erasmus, Melanchthon, Jeremy Taylor, Ralph Cudworth, Henry More, Neander, and Tayler Lewis-have been "Platonizing" Christians.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
No attempt can be made here to give a
complete list of works on Plato, the works now cited being
those which probably best illustrate the subject of the
article. A notable bibliography, covering editions, translations, and critical treatises, is to be found in Baldwin,
Dictionary, iii. 1, pp. 404-423, to be supplemented by the list entered under "Philosophy" in Fortescue's Subject
Index of Modern Works . . . of the British Museum, London, 1902 sqq.
For the works of Plato the best eds. for general use are that on the basis of Stephens by
C. D. Beck, 8 vols., Leipsic 1893-99; and the ed. by
J. Bumet, vols, i.-v., Oxford, 1900-07. The classical Eng. transl. is that of
B. Jowett, The Dialogues, 3d ed., 5 vols., Oxford, 1892, with
E. Abbott's Index, ib. 1895,
The Republic, 2 vols., 3d ed., ib. 1908. Of prime importance are the works on the history of philosophy by Ueberweg, ed. M. Heinse, 9th ed., Berlin, 1901-05, Eng. transl. of the 4th ed., London, 1875-76;
W. Windelband, 4tb ed., Tübingen, 1907, Eng. transl. of 1st ed., New York, 1893;
J. E. Erdmann, 2 vole., Berlin, 1895-98, Eng. transl., 3 vols., London, 1892-98 ; and
E. Zeller, new ed., Tübingen, 1892, Eng. transl., London, 1897. Consult:
G. C. B. Ackermann, Dos Chrislliche im Plato and in der platoniachen Philosophie, Eng transl)., The Christian Element in Plato, Edinburgh, 1880;
F. Schleiermacher, Introduction to Dialogues of Plato, translated by W. Dobson, Cambridge and London, 1838;
E. Zeller, Platonischen Studien, Tü
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bingen, 1839;
J. F. Simon, Etudes sir la theodicée de Platon et d'Aristote, Paris, 1840;
C. B. Smyth, Christian Metaphysics, or Plato, Malebranche, and Gioberti Compared with the Modern Schools of Psychology, London, 1851;
C. Morgan, An Investigation of the Trinity of Plato, Cambridge 1853;
D. Becker, Das philosophische System Platons in seiner Beviehung zum christlichen Dogma, Leipsic, 1882;
R. D. Hampton, The Fathers of Greek Philosophy, Edinburgh, 1882;
G. Grote, Plato and the Other Companions of Socrates, London, 1885, 2d ed., 1887;
B. F. Cocker, Christianity and Greek Philosophy, New York, 1870;
A. E. Chaignet, La Vie et les éscrits de Platon, Paris, 1871;
J. W. Lake, Plato, Philo and Paul, Edinburgh, 1874;
E. Zeller, Plato and the Old Academy, London, 1878;
S. W. Mendenhall, Plato and Paul, or Philosophy and Christianity, Cincinnati, 1888;
E. W. Simson, Der Begriff der Seele bei Plato, Leipsic, 1889;
J. Lipperheide, Thomas van Aquino and die platonische Ideenlehre, Munich, 1890;
J. H. Stirling, Philosophy and Theology, Edinburgh, 1890;
C. Bénard, Platon: sa vie et sa phiZoaophie, Paris,
1892; W. Pater, Plato and Platonism, London and New
York, 1893; J. W. G. van Oordt, Plato and the Times he Lived in, The Hague, 1895;
H. Roeder, Platom phiZoaophiache EntwickelungLeipsic, 1905;
E. Reich, Plato as an Introduction to Modern Criticism of Life, London, 1908;
C. Ritter, Platon, sein Leben, seine Schriften, seine Lehre, Munich, 1909;
idem, Neue Untersuchungen fiber Platon, ib., 1910;
A. E. Taylor, Plato, New York, 1909. Much
that is illustrative from a historical point of view will be
found in the literature under SCHOLASTICISM.
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