(4 vols., 1882-90); Los Christianisme et t'empire romain de N6ron a Th&dose (1897); Saint Basile (1898); Ettudes d'histoire et d'archdologie (1898); Julian l'Apostat (3 vols., 1900-03; crowned by the French Academy); Les Chraiens et l'ineendie de Rome soul NEron (1903); Les Persdcutions et la critique moderne (1903); and Dix lepons sur le martyrs (1906). He has also made a translation, with additions and notes, of the Roma Sotterranea of Northcote and Brownlow under the title Rome souterraine (Paris, 1873).

ALLATIUS, al-16'ahius or -ahus, LEO (LEONE ALACCI): Roman Catholic scholar; b. on the island of Chios 1586; d. in Rome Jan. 19, 1669. He was brought to Calabria at the age of nine, and in 1600 went to Rome, where he became one of the most distinguished pupils of the Greek College founded in 1577 by Gregory XIII. He studied philosophy and theology, and later also medicine at the Sapienza, and became a teacher in the Greek College and a scriptor in the Vatican library. When Maximilian of Bavaria presented the Heidelberg library to the pope (1622), Allatius was chosen to superintend its removal to Rome, and he spent nearly a year in the work. The death of Gregory XV. just before his return deprived him of a fitting reward; and he was even suspected of having appropriated or given away part of this charge. He was supported by the liberality of some of the cardinals, especially Francesco Barberini, who made him his private librarian (1638). Alexander VII. appointed him keeper of the Vatican library in 1661, and he lived the retired life of a scholar until his death. Allatius's contemporaries regarded him as a prodigy of learning and diligence, though apparently somewhat narrow and pedantic, and without much critical judgment. His literary productions were of the most varied kind. The interests which lay nearest to his heart were the demonstration that the Greek and Roman Churches had always been in substantial agreement, and the bringing of his fellow countrymen to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome. His principal writings, the De ecclesia occidental" et oriental" perpetua consensione (Co logne, 1648), and the smaller De utriuaque ecclesice in dogmate de purgatorio eonsensaone (Rome, 1655), bear upon this subject; his Confutatio fabulae de papissa (1630) aims to vindicate the papacy. He was vigorously opposed by Protestant scholars, such as Hottinger, Veiel, and Spanheim, and some Roman Catholics (as R. Simon) admitted that his treatment of history was onesided. He found an ardent helper in the German convert B. Neuhaus (Nihusius), the pupil and then the opponent of Calixtus. Allatius published many other works of a similar tendency, e.g., on the procession of the Holy Ghost (1658), the Athanasian Creed (1659), the Synod of photius (1662), and the Council of Florence (1674). He also edited, annotated, or translated a number of Greek authors, both ecclesiastical and secular, and contributed to the Paris Corpus Byzantinorum. He left behind him plans and prelimistudies for still more extensive undertakings, eu h as a complete library, of all the Greek authors. His literary remains, and an extensive correspondence, I.-9

comprising more than 1,000 letters in Greek and Latin, came in 1803 into the possession of the library of the Oratorians in Rome. (A. HAUCH.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Gradius, Vita Leonis A llatii, first published in Mai, Nova patrum bibliotheca, vi., part 2, pp. v: xxviii., Rome, 1853; Fabricius-Harles, Bibliotheca Graca, xi. 435 sqq.; J. M. Sehr&ekh, %irchenpeschickte seit der Reformation, ix. 21, Leipsic, 1810; A. Theiner, Die Schenkunp der Heidelberper BZliothek . . mit Oripdnalechri/ten, Munich, 1844; H. Laemmer, De L. AUatii codicibua, Freiburg, 1864; H. Hurter, Nomenclator literarius, ii. 119 sqq., Innsbruck, 1893.

ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION. See ExEGEBIB OR HERMENEUTIcs, III., §§ 2-5.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Letters from Italy and Switzerland, tranel. by Lady Wallace, pp. 133134, 168-191, Philadelphia, 1863.

ALLEINEE, al'en, JOSEPH: English non-con formist; b. at Devizes (86 m. w. of London), Wiltshire, 1634; d. at Taunton, Somersetahire, Nov. 17, 1668. He was graduated at Oxford in 1653 and became chaplain to his college (Corpus Christi); in 1655 he became assistant minister at Taunton, whence he was ejected for non-conformity in 1662; he continued to preach and was twice imprisoned in consequence, and his later years were troubled by constant danger of arrest. He was a learned man, associated as an equal with the fellows of the Royal Society, and engaged in scientific study and experimentation. He is now remembered, however, as the author of An Alarm to Unconverted Sinners (London, 1672; republished in 1675 under the title A Sure Guide to Heaven). He published several other works, including an Explanation of the AseerMty's Shorter Catwhiem (1656).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Stanford, Companions and Times of Joseph A7leine, London, 1861; DNB, i. 299-,300.

ALLEIAE, RICHARD: English non-conformist; b. at Ditcheat (18 m. s. by w. of Bath) 1611; d. at Frome Selwood (11 m. s. by e. of Bath) Dec. 22, 1681. He was educated at Oxford and was rector of Batcombe (15 m. s. by w. of Bath) from 1641 till ejected for non-conformity in 1662, when he removed to FrOme gelwOOd, only a few miles away, and there preached. His fame rests on his

Vindicice pidatis, or a vindication of godliness, in four parts, each with a different title (London, 1663-68).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: A$B, Sept., v. 436 sqq.; G. J. Eggs, Purpura docta, libri iii. and iv., p. 50 sqq., Munich. 1714;

Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Otis, Mass., May 4, 1841. He was educated at Kenyon College, Gambier, O. (B.A., 1862), and Andover Theological Seminary (1865), and was ordained priest in the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1865. He was the founder and first rector of St. John's Chureh, Lawrence, Mass., in 1865-67, and in the latter year was appointed professor of church history in the Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass., where he still remains. Since 1886 he has been a member of the Massachusetts Historical Society. His principal writings are: Continuity of Christian Thought (Boston, 1884); Life of Jonathan Edwards (1889); Religious Progress (1893; lecture delivered at Yale University); Christian Institutions (New York, 1897); and Life and Letters of Phillips Brooks (1900).

ALLEN, HENRY: Founder of the Allenites; b. at Newport, R. I., June 14, 1748; d. at Northhampton, N. H., Feb. 2, 1784. Without proper training he became a preacher, and while settled at Falmouth, Nova Scotia, about 1778, began to promulgate peculiar views in sermons and tracts. He held that all souls are emanations or parts of the one Great Spirit; that all were present in the Garden of Eden and took actual part in the fall; that the human body and the entire material world were only created after the fall and as a consequence of it; that in time all souls will be embodied, and when the original number have thus passed through a state of probation, all will receive etern?d reward or punishment in their original unembodied state. He denied the resurrection of the body, and treated

baptism, the Lord's Supper, and ordination as matters of indifference. He traveled throughout Nova Scotia and made many zealous converts. The number of these, however, dwindled away after his death.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. T. Stokes, Calendar of the " Liber niper Alani," in the Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, sir. 5, iii. (1893) 303-320.

wall, 1771; d. June 17, 1839, at Hackney, where for thirty years he kept a private school. His chief work was Modern Judaism: or a Brief Account of the Opinions, Traditions, Rites, and Ceremonies of the Jews in Modern Times (London, 1816); he published also (1813) what was long the standard English translation of Calvin's Institutes o f the Christian Religion.

ALLEN, JOSEPH HENRY: American Unitarian; b. at Northborough, Mass., Aug. 21, 1820; d. at Cambridge, Mass., Mar. 20, 1898. He was graduated at Harvard in 1840, and at the Cambridge Divinity School in 1843, and became pastor at Jamaica Plain (R,oxbury), Mass. (1843), Washington, D. C. (1847), and Bangor, Me. (1850). In 1857 he returned to Jamaica Plain, and thenceforth devoted himself to teaching and literary work, often supplying the pulpits of neighboring towns, and with brief pastorates at Ann Arbor, Mich. (1877-78), Ithaca, N. Y. (1883--84), and San Diego, Cal. After 1867 he lived in Cambridge and was lecturer on ecclesiastical history in Harvard University, 1878-82. He was editor of The Christian Examiner (1857-69) and of The Unitarian Review (1887-91); with his brother, W. F. Allen, and J. B. Greenough he prepared the Allen and Greenough series of Latin text-books. He translated and edited an English edition of certain of the works of Renan (History of the People of Israel, 5 vols., Boston, 1888-95; The Future of Science, 1891; The Life of Jesus, 1895; Antichrist, 1897; The Apostles, 1898); and published, among other works, Ten Discourses on Orthodoxy (Boston, 1849); Hebrew Men and Times from the Patriarchs to the Messiah (1861); Our Liberal Movement in Theology,

chiefly as shown in recollections of the History of Unitarianism in New England (1882); Christian History in its Three Great Periods (3 vols.,1882-83); Positive Religion (1892); Historical Sketch of the Unitarian Movement since the Reformation (American Church History Series, New York, 1894); Sequel to `Our Liberal Movement ' (Boston, 1897).

ALLEN, WILLIAM: 1. "The cardinal of England; " b. at Rossall (36 m. n. of Liverpool), Lancashire, 1532; d. at Rome Oct. 16, 1594. He entered Oriel College, Oxford, in 1547 (B.A. and fellow, 1550; M.A., 1554), and after the accession of Mary decided to devote himself to the Church. He became principal of St. Mary's Hall, Oxford, and proctor of the university in 1556, canon of York in 1558. His zeal for the Roman religion soon attracted the notice of the authorities under Elizabeth, and in 1561 he left Oxford for the University of Louvain. In 1562 he came home, much broken in health, and spent the next three years in England, constantly encouraging the Catholics and making converts. He left his native land for good in 1565, was ordained priest at Mechlin, and lectured on theology in the Benedictine college there. He conceived the idea of a college for English students on the Continent, and in 1568 opened the first and most famous of such institutions, that at Douai (q.v.). He continued to administer and serve the college till 1588, although in 1585 he had removed to Rome. Pope Sixtus V., raised him to the cardinalate in 1587. Philip II. nominated him archbishop of Mechlin, 1589, but he was not preconized by the pope. Gregory XIV. made him prefect of the Vatican library.

The great aim of Allen's life was to restore England to the Church of Rome. This aim he pursued persistently. Until his fiftieth year he contented himself with persuasive measures alone (" scholastical attempts," in his own words), and met with no inconsiderable success. Had it not been for the missioners who were continually going into the country from his schools, probably the Roman Catholic religion would have perished as completely in England as it did in Scandinavian countries.

About 1582 Allen began to meditate force and to interfere in politics. He was closely associated with Robert Parsons (q-.), was cognizant of the plots to depose Elizabeth, and became the head of the " Spanish party " in England. It was at the request of Philip II. that he was appointed cardinal; and the intention was to make him papal legate, archbishop of Canterbury, and lord chancellor, and to entrust to him the organization of the ecclesiastical affairs of the country, if the proposed invasion of England should succeed. Just before the Armada sailed he indorsed, if he did not write, An Admonition to the Nobility and people of England and Ireland concerning the present wars, made for the execution of his Holiness's sentence, by the King Catholic of Spain (printed at Antwerp), and an abridgment of the same, called A Declaration of the Sentence of Deposition of Elizabeth, the Usurper and Pretensed Queen of England, which was disseminated in the form of a broadside. Both publications were violent and scurrilous, as well as

treasonable from the English point of view, and roused great indignation in England, even among 'the Catholics, who, unlike Allen, very generally remained true to their country and sovereign. Allen's conduct, however, it should be borne in mind, was consistent with his belief in papal supremacy and with his views concerning excommunication and thl' right of the spiritual authorities to punish. He is described as handsome and dignified in person, courteous in manner, and endowed with many attractive qualities. Stories concerning his wealth and the princely style in which he lived in Rome are not true.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: The more important of his many writings are: Certain Brief Reasons Concerning Catholic Faith, Douai, 1564; A Defence and Declaration of the Catholic Church's Doctnne Touching Purgatory and Prayers for the Souls Departed, Antwerp, 1565; A Treatise Made in Defence of the Lawful Power and Authority of Priesthood to Remit Sine, Louvain, 1567; De saeramentis in penere, ds sacramento eucharistiev, de sari ficio mieso;, Antwerp, 1576; and A Brief History of the Martyrdom of Twelve Reverend Priests, 1582. He helped make the English Bible translation known as the Douai Bible, and was one of the commission of cardinals and scholars who corrected the edition (see BIBLE VEBsioNs, B, IV., § 5, A, II., 2, § 5). At the time of his death he was engaged upon an edition of Augustine's works.

On his life consult: First and Second Diaries of the English College, Douay, London, 1878; Letters and Memorials of William Cardinal Allen, 1882 (constituting with the foregoing vols. i. and ii. of Records of the English Catholics, edited by fathers of the Congregation of the London Oratory). The Historical Introductions to these works, by T. F. Knox, give much valuable information, and his life ( n Latin) by Nicholas Fitzherbert, published originally in De antiquitate et continuddone catholicr religionis in Anglia, Rome, 1608, is reprinted in the last-named. pp. 3-20; J. Gillow, Dictionary of English Catholics, i. 14-24, London, 1885; DNB, i. 314-322, gives excellent list of sources.

2. American Congregationalist; b. at Pittsfield, Mass., Jan. 2, 1784; d. at Northhamptoh, Mass., July 16, 1868. He was graduated at Harvard in 1802; was licensed to preach in 1804 and soon after became assistant librarian at Harvard. He succeeded his father as pastor at Pittsfield in 1810. In 1817 he was chosen president of the reorganized Dartmouth College, but two years later the Supreme Court of the United States declared the reorganization invalid. He was president of Bowdoin College, 1820-39. He wrote much and was an industrious contributor to dictionaries and encyclopedic works. His American Biographical and Historical Dictionary (Cambridge, 1809, containing 700 names; 2d ed., Boston, 1832, 1,800 names; 3d ed., 1857, 7,000 names) was the first work of the kind published in America.

ALLEY, WILLIAM: Bishop of Exeter; b. about 1510 at Chipping Wycombe, Bucks, England; d. at Exeter Apr. 15, 1570. He was educated at Eton, Cambridge, and Oxford, espoused the cause of the Reformation, but kept in retirement during the reign of Mary. Elizabeth made him divinity

reader in St. Paul's, and in 1560 Bishop of Exeter. He revised the Book of Deuteronomy for the Bishops' Bible, and published an exposition of I Peter, with notes which show wide reading (2 vols., London, 1565).

ALLIANCE, EVANGELICAL. See EVAXQELaCAL ALLIANCE.

Aims and the following cities, Edinburgh (1877), Achieve- Philadelphia (1881), Belfast .(1884), meats. London (1888). Toronto (1892), Glasgow (1898), Washington (1899), and Liverpool (1904), at all of which questions of doctrine, polity, Home and Foreign Missions, and other forms of Christian activity have been fully discussed, the papers read with the subsequent discussions being published in a volume of proceedings. The Alliance is the rallying-point of the Reformed and Presbyterian Churches of the world, all of these with one or two exceptions having joined its fellowship. Its membership thus embraces not only the English-speaking Churches of Great Britain and America. and the historic Churches of the European Continent, but also the Churches in the colonial and other territories of Great Britain, with the newly formed Churches which are the fruit of missionary labor among nonChriatian peoples. Through the Alliance the special conditions of each Church have become better known to sister Churches than they had been previously, and hence, not only by sympathy and counse , but also by large financial aid, the Alliance has sought to assist the weaker communities.

The General Councils of the Alliance are neither mass-meetings nor conferences open to al , but consist exclusively of delegates appointed by the several Churches; yet neither are they synods or church courts, for they have no legislative authority of any kind and can only submit to all the Churches or to such as may be specially interested, any conclusions which they have reached. For administrative purposes, the Alliance has divided its Executive Commission or Business Committee into an Eastern Section located in Great Britain, and a Western Section located in the United States, but working in harmony with each other by constant, intercorrespondence. As representing about thirty millions of souls, holding a common system of doctrine and adhering to a common polity and whose voluntary contributions for church purposes were reported at the Liverpool Council in 1904 as amounting in the previous year to considerably more than thirty-eight millions of dollars, the Alliance forma to-lay one of the most closely united and influential organizations of Christendom. G. D. MATHaws.

ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM: English Roman Catholic; b. at Midsomer Norton (14 m. n.e. of Glastonbury), Somersetahire, Feb. 12, 1813; d. at St. John's Wood, London, June 17, 1903. He was first class in classics at Oxford, 1832. He took orders in the Anglican Church in 1838, serving for two

years as chaplain to the bishop of London and for ten years as rector of Launton. In 1850 he was received into the Roman Catholic Church by his friend, Cardinal, then Father, Newman. He wrote extensively on theological subjects, his principal works being, St. Peter, his Name and Office (London, 1852); The Formation of Christendom (8 vols., 186195); Per crucem ad ltuem (2 vols., 1879); A Life's Decision 11880); Church and State (1882), a continuation of The Formation of Christendom; and The. Throne o f the Fisherman (1887).

ALLIOLI, al"li-61, JOSEF FRANZ: Roman Catholic; b. at Sulzbach, Austria, Aug.10,1793; d. at Augsburg May 22, 1873. He studied theology at Landshut and Regensburg, and Oriental languages at Vienna, Rome, and Paris. In 1823 he became professor of Oriental languages and Biblical exegesis and archeology at Landshut, and went to Munich when the university was removed thither in 1826. In 1835, being compelled to give up teaching through throat trouble, he became a member of the cathedral chapter at Munich and, in 1838, provost of the cathedral at Augsburg. He was active in charitable work and promoted the Franciscan Female Institute of the Star of Mary. The most noteworthy of his numerous publications was Die heilige Schrift des Alten and Neuen Testaments aus der Vulgata mit Bezug auf den Grundtezt neu iibersetzt and mit kurzen Anmerkungen erldutert (6 vols., Nuremberg, 1830-34), a third edition of an earlier work by H. Braun (ib. 1786). It far surpassed its predecessors, received papal sanction, and has been often reissued.

ALLON, HENRY: English Congregationalist; b. at Welton (10 m. w. of Hull), Yorkshire, Oct. 13, 1818; d. in London Apr. 16, 1892. He studied at Cheshunt College, Hertfordshire, and from Jan., 1844, till his death was minister of Union Chapel, Islington, London (for the first eight years as associate of the Rev. Thomas Lewis). During his ministry the congregation increased to a membership of nearly 2,000, and a new church building on Compton Terrace, Islingtoh, was opened in Dec., 1877. He was chairman of the Congregational Union in 1864 and also in the Jubilee Year (1881). He was interested in the musical service of public worship and compiled hymn, anthem, and chant books, as well as a volume of hymns for children, which were largely used in the Congregational churches of England. He wrote much for the periodical press, edited the British Quarterly Reriew, 1865-87, and published The Life of Rev. James Sherman (London, 1863).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. H. Harwood, Henry AUon The Story of his Minis"with Selected Sermons and A2dreeaee, London, 1894 (by his successor at Islington).

ALL SAINTS' DAY (Lat. Festum omnium sanctorum): The first day of November. The Greek Church as early as the time of Chrysostom consecrated the Sunday after Whitsunday to the memory of all martyrs. The underlying idea of this festival is the same as that of All Saints' Day, although no connection between the two can be shown. The origin of All Saints' Day is obscure. It is said that Boniface IV. (608-615) made the Pantheon at Rome a church of Mary and all martyrs and that the commemoration of this dedication was transferred from May 13 to Nov. 1 (Durand, Rationale, vii., chap. 34). More probable is the view that the festival is connected with the oratory which Gregory III. (731-741) erected in St. Peter's, " in which he laid the bones of the holy apostles and of all the holy martyrs and confessors, just men made perfect in all the world" (Llber pontifacali8, Vita Greg. III., ed. Duchesne, i. 417). Traces of the festival are found in the Frankish kingdom at the time of the Carolingians, it was commended by Alcuin (Epist., lxxv.), and in the ninth century it became general. Luther did not approve of the festival, and Lutheran and Reformed churches do not observe it. The Church of England, however, and its branches retain it. W. CASPAM.

(ASM, atec. vi., i. 585); and in coup of time it was extended to all who had died in the faith. The Missals Romanum prescribes a special requiem -

mass for the day. Luther demanded that the festival be given up, and it soon disappeared among

Protestants. It is not observed in the Church of England. The German rationalists favored a

riosophie, ii., Frankfort, 1817, 432). The litany of the Moravians for Easter morning is a Protestant pendant to All Souls' Day, and the rapid rise and popularity of the festival show that it satisfies a feeling of the Christian mind which the Church would do well to recognize. W. CASPART.

ALMAIN, al"m6n', JACQUES: Gallican theologian; b. at Sens c. 1450; d. in Paris 1515. He was professor of theology in the College of Navarre in Paris, and at the request of Louis XII. prepared a reply to Cardinal Cajetan's work on the superiority of the pope to a general council (Tractatus de auctoritate ecclesim et coneiliorum generalium adversus Thomam de Vio, Paris, 1512; Bee CAJETAN, CARDINAL). A similar work was his Expositio circa deciaiones magistri Guilelmi Occam super potentate Romani pontifieis (1517). He wrote also Moralia (1510) and Dietata super sentential mayistri Helcot (1512).

ALMEIDA, al-mA'i-da, MANOEL: Jesuit missionary; b. at Vizeu (50 m. e.s.e. of Oporto), Portugal, 1580; d. at Goa 1646: He entered the Order of the Jesuits 1595; was sent to the East Indies 1602; lived in Abyssinia 1624-34; returned to Goa and became provincial of the order in the Indies. He left material for a general history of Abyssinia and of the Jesuits there, which was edited and published, in Portuguese, with additions, by Balthazar Tellez (Coimbra, 1660). Almeida's letter from Abyssinia to the general of his order for 1626-27 was published in Italian and French (Rome and Paris, 1629).

ALMONER (Fr. dum6nier; Lat. eleemosyuarius): An office at the French court from the thirteenth century onward, originally filled by one of the court chaplains who was entrusted with the distribution of the royal alms. Later there were several of these almoners, so that from the fifteenth century a grand almoner was named. The first to bear this title was Jean de Rely, later bishop of Angers and confessor of Charles VII. The grand almoner was one of the highest ecclesiastical dignitaries in France, and was charged with the supervision of charitable works in general, and of the court clergy. Nominations to benefices in the king's gift, including bishoprics and abbeys, were made through him. The office was abolished with the monarchy, though it was revived under both Napoleons.

Attached to the British court is the Royal Almonry, which dispenses alms for the sovereign, with these officers:, hereditary grand almoner (the marquis of Exeter, lord high almoner (the lord bishop of Ely), subalmoner (subdean of chapels royal), the groom of the almonry, and the secretary to the lord high almoner. In the papal court the almoner of the pope is prudent of the elimosineria apostolica, a body composed of two clerics and four laymen. There is a similar office at the Spanish court.

ALMS: A gift to which the recipient has no claim and for which he renders no return, made purely from pity and a desire to relieve need. Such a gift has religious value in Buddhism and in Islam. But it was in Judaism that almsgiving

was first highly regarded from a religio-ethical point of view. The Old Testament has a higher conception, based upon the ideas that the land belongs not to individuals but to God, whence all have equal right to its fruits, and that the regulating principle of conduct toward others among God's chosen people must be " thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself " (Lev. xix. 18, 34). Benevolence follows as an ordinary duty. In postcanonical times ahnsgiving almost imperceptibly assumed the character of a voluntary act of merit and even of expiation for sin and assurance of salvation (Tobit iv. 7-11, xii. 8-9; Ecclus. iii. 30, xxix. 1213). Such overvaluation of external acts is rebuked in Matt. vi. The New Testament revelation is a gospel of the voluntary love of God, in which good works can have no efficacy toward justificar tion and salvation. They are, on the contrary, the inevitable result and proof of the renewed life (Matt. vii. 1rr23; Luke x. 33-37). It is from this point of view that the idea of a divine reward finds application to the observance of charity in the New Testament (Matt. vi. 4, xix. 21; Luke xiv. 14; Acts x. 4; II Cor. ix. 7; Gal. vi. 9).

The Judaic conception of almsgiving as an act of merit and satisfaction came into the early Church through the Jewish Christians. A classic expression of Jewish-Christian thought is II Clement xvi. 4: " Almsgiving, therefore, is a good thing, even as repentance for sin. Fasting is better than prayer, but almsgiving than both. And love covereth a multitude of sins; but prayer out of a good conscience delivereth from death. Blessed is every man that is found full of these. For almsgiving lifteth off the burden of sin." The idea is completely dominant in Cyprian (De opere et elesmosynis), and was, indeed, unavoidable, if the Old Testament Apocrypha were accepted as on a par with the canon. Save that propitiatory value was afterward assigned to the sacrament of penance, the position of the Roman Catholic Church has remained essentially that of Cyprian. Augustine conceded influence in the alleviation of purgatorial suffering to almsgiving, and the " Sentences " of Peter Lombard, the dogmatic manual of the Middle Ages, emphasize the idea out of all true proportion.

Poverty was so highly prized by the early Church that the pseudo-Clementine Homilies (XV. vii. 9) declare the possession of property as defilement with the things of this world, a sin. In the fourth century poverty, through monasticism, became a factor in the Christian ideal life. And in the thirteenth century begging, through Francis of Assisi, received a religious idealization, which was in the highest degree pernicious to social good order. The mendicant monk is nothing more nor less than a grossly immoral character. The Reformation rejected all these errors, required some form of labor from the Christian as the basis of his membership in society, and sought to substitute organized care of the poor for the prevalent haphazard methods of giving and receiving alms. Protestant dogmatics grants to alms no share whatever in the doctrine of salvation. Far above any individual instance of almsgiving is the spirit of

BIBLIOGRAPHY: On the historical side, 9. Chaatel, Charity of the Primitive Churches, Philadelphia, 1857; G. Uhlhorn, Christliche Mebesthdtigkwit, 3 vols., Stuttgart, 1895, Eng. transl., Christian Charity in the Ancient Church, New York, 1883. On the practical side, P. Church, The Philosophy of Benevolence, New York, 1836; Systematic Beneficence, comprising " The Great Reform " by A. Stevens, .. The Great Quern" by L. Wright, " Property consecrated " by B. St. J. Fry, NewYork,1856; M. W. Moggridge,Method in Almsgiving, London, 1882. Consult also the books on Christian Ethics and on Socialism.

ALOGI, al'o-jf (Gk. alogoi): A name coined by Epiphanius (Haer., li.) to designate certain people whom he treats as a distinct sect. The account which he gives agrees with that of Philaster (Haer., lx.), because both depend on the Syntagma of Hippolytus. Epiphanius can not have known of them by either oral tradition or personal contact; he speaks of them as a phenomenon of the past, of the time when Montanism vexed the Church of Asia Minor, and is unable to give any answer to the most obvious questions in regard to them. Before his time they have no more definite name than " the heretics who reject the writings of John." Epiphanius was uncertain whether they rejected the epistles of John, and Hippolytus had referred only to their criticism of the Gospel and the Apocalypse. The former justifies the name " Alogi " by the assertion that the sect did not accept the Logos proclaimed by John; but the grounds which he quotes from them for their rejection of the Johannine writings, equally with the indications of Hippolytus and Philaster, fail to support this view of their critical attitude; indeed, in another place Epiphanius contradicts himself. His consequent association of the Theodotians with the Alogi is thus only one of his groundless fancies.

Epiphanius quotes a number of their assertions, e.g., that the books in question were written not by John, but by Cerinthus, and are unworthy to be received in the Church; that they do not agree with the works of the other apostles; and that the Apocalypse is absurd in numerous particulars. The determining motive of their criticism can not be made out from his fragmentary indications. If the name " Alogi " and the notion that this motive was a rejection of the Christdogy of the fourth Gospel are demonstrably groundless inventions of Epiphanius, which moreover fail to explain the contemptuous tone of the sect toward the Apocalypse, it is all the more noteworthy that he not only places them in chronological and geographical relation to the Montanists of Asia Minor, but attributes to them also a denial of the existence

BrHLIoaSAPHl: The sources are indicated in the text. Con sult: Harnack, Litteratur, II. i. 378 sqq., 870-871, 689691, 692, 695; T. Zahn, Geschichte des neutmtamentlichen Kanone, i. 220-262, ii. 47, 50, 236,967-991, 1021, Leipsic, 1890-91; idem, Porachumen, v. 3b-43, 1892; Neander, Christian Church, i. 526, 583, 682; Moeller,ChristianChurch, i. 158, 223.233; DB, ii. 701, iii. 537, iv. 240; G. P. Fisher, Some Remarks on the Alogi, in Papers of the American Society of Church History, vol. Iii., pt. 1, pp. 1-9, New York, 1890.

ALOMBRADOS, d"lom-bra'dez (modern spelling, ALUMBRADOS; Lat. Illuminati; "Enlightened "): Spanish mystics who first attracted the attention of the Inquisition in 1524 (Wadding, Annalm minorum, under the year 1524), when a certain Isabella de Cruce of Toledo is mentioned as a representative of their quietistic-ascetic teachings and their enthusiastic striving for divine inspirations and revelations. About 1546 Magdalena de Cruce of Aguilar, near Cordova, a member of the Poor Clares, is said to have been accused of spreading immoral antinomian teachings and to have been forced to abjure her heresies; and there are like reports of a Carmelite nun, Catherina de Jesus of Cordova, about 1575, and of a Portuguese Dominican nun, Maria de Visitations, in 1586. The founder of the Society of Jesus, in his student days, was accused of belonging to the Illuminati at Alcala in 1526, and at Salamanca in 1527, and the second time was imprisoned for forty-two days (cf. Gothem, p. 225; see JESUITS). A connection between the Spanish Illuminati of the sixteenth century and the German reformatory movement has often been conjectured, especially by Roman Catholics, but without good reason; nor can influence from Anabaptists like Mfnzer or &hwenckfeld be seriously considered.

An ordinance of the Spanish Inquisition dated Jan. 28, 1558, mentions the following heretical teachings as characteristic of the Illuminati: °° Only inward prayer is well-pleasing to God and meritorious, not external prayer with the lips. The confessors who impose outward acts of repentance are not to be obeyed; the true servants of God

are superior to such discipline and have no need of meritorious works in the common sense; the contortions, convulsions, and faintings, which accompany their inner devotion, are to them sufficient tokens of the divine grace. In the state of perfection the secret of the Holy Trinity is beheld while here below, and all that should be done or left undone is communicated directly by the Holy Spirit. When perfection is attained it is no longer necessary to look to images of the saints, or to hear sermons or religious conversations of the common kind " (J. A. Llorente, Geschichle der spanischen Inquisition, Germ. ed., ii., Stuttgart, 1824, pp. 3-1). A still fuller record of Illuminatic errors is given by Malvasia (Catalogus omnium ha:resium et conciliorum, Rome, 1661, xvi. century, pp. 269-274), who enumerates fifty heretical propositions, including besides these already mentioned the following: " In the state of perfection the soul can neither go forward nor backward, for its own faculties have all been abolished by grace. The perfect has no more need of the intercession of the saints, even devotion to the humanity of Jesus is superfluous for him; he has no more need of the sacraments or to do good works. A perfect man can not sin; even an act which; outwardly regarded, must be looked upon as vicious, can not contaminate the soul which lives in mystical union with God."

The ecclesiastical annalist Spondanus records in the year 1623 an inquisitorial process against Illuminatic mystics in the dioceses of Seville and Granada, in which the grand inquisitor Andreas Pacheco mentions no less than seventy-six heretical propositions, many of them antinomian. Like things are told of the French sect of Illuminta (called also Gu&inets from their leader the AbbB Gu6rin) who were prosecuted in 1634 in Flanders and Picardy: Another sect of Illumines which appeared about 1722 in southern France has more resemblance to the freemasons, and seems to have been a precursor of the Order of Illuminati in south Germany, especially in Bavaria (see IrruminrATl).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Heppe, Ceschidhle der quietiatischen Mystik in der kathodiachen %irche, 41 sqq., Berlin, 1875; M. Menendez y Pelayo, Historia do ioa heterodoxoa EepaAotes, ii. 521, iii. 403, Madrid, 1880; H. C. Lea, Chapters from As Religious History o/ Spain Connected with do 1nquiaition, passim, Philadelphia, 1890; E. Gothein, 1pnatiua roon Loyola and die Gepenrefornaalion, pp. 61-62, 224 sqq., Halle, 1895.

ALOYSIUS, al"ei"shins', SAINT, OF GONZAGA (LUIGI GONZAGA): Jesuit; b. in the castle of Castiglione (22 m. n.w. of Mantua), the ancestral seat of the Gonzaga family, Mar. 9, 1568; d. in Rome June 21, 1591. His father was Marquis of Castiglione and a prince of the Holy Roman Empire, but the boy turned away from the pleasures of courts and devoted himself early to a life of asceticism and piety. In 1585 he renounced his claim-to the succession in order to join the Society of Jesus, and took the vows in 1587. His death was due to his self-sacrificing labors in the care of the sick during the prevalence of the plague in Rome. He was beatified by Gregory XV. in 1621, and canonized by Benedict XIII. in 1726. Devo-

tion to him is wide-spread in the modern Roman Catholic Church, in which he is regarded as a model of the virtue of purity, and an especial patron of young men, particularly those who enter the ecclesiastical state.

BIHmoaBAPHY: V. Cepari, De vita bead. Aloyaii Gonsapa, Cologne, 1608, Eng. tranal. by F. Goldie, London, 1891; C. Papenoordt, Der heilips Aloysius, Paderborn, 1889.

ALPHA AND OMEGA (A, 12): The first and last letters of the Greek alphabet. They are used in a symbolic sense in three places in the Book of Revelation. In i. 8 God describes himself as " Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the ending, which is, and which was, and which is to come, the Almighty." The expression is similarly used in xxi. 6 (cf. Isa. xliv. 6, xlviu. 12). In xxii. 13 the name " Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end, the first and the last " is the designation adopted for himself by Christ, who is also called " the first and the last " in ii. 8. If, as is apparent from the context, these passages express the same symbolic meaning, that of eternity as unlimited duration, it is plain that the use of this name is intended to guarantee the fulfilment of the prophecies mentioned in the passages. Commentators have referred, in explanation of the expression, to the use of the first and last letters of the Hebrew alphabet (K 11) in rabbinical literature, though the parallelism is not acknowledged by all scholars. A long line of early and medieval writers discuss the passages cited from Revelation. Thus Clement of Alexandria has one or more of them in mind when he says (Stromata, iv. 25): " For he [the Son] is the circle of all powers rolled and united into one unity. Wherefore the Word (Gk. Logos) is called the Alpha and the Omega, of whom alone the end becomes the beginning, and ends again at the original beginning without any break." As in this passage, so in Stromata, vi. 16, he explains the prophecies with reference to Christ alone. Tertullian (De monogamia, v.) makes a similar use of the name. Ambrose (In septem visiones, i. 8) says that Christ calls himself the beginning because he is the creator of the human race and the author of salvation, and the end because he is the end of the law, of death, and so on. Prudentius, in his hymn Corde natus ex parentis, paraphrases the words of Revelation. The Gnostics extracted from the letters their characteristic mystical play on numbers; the fact that A and O stood for 801, and the sum of the letters in the Greek word for dove (peristera) amounted to the same, was used by the Gnostic Marcus to support the assertion that Christ called himself Alpha and Omega with reference to the coming of the Spirit at his baptism in the form of a dove (Irenaeus, I. xiv. 6, xv. 1). Later, Primasius played on the numbers in the same way to prove the essential identity of the Holy Ghost with the Father and the Son (on Rev. xxii. 13). An evidence of the place which these letters held in Gnostic speculation is afforded by a piece of parchment and one of papyrus preserved in the Egyptian Museum at Berlin, both originally used as amulets. On the former the letters are found together with Coptic magical formulas and a cross of St. Andrew; tile latter also contains Coptic

formulas, divided by a cross which terminates at each extremity in A or fl.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: A vast amount ham been written on the subject; the best single article is in Dictionnaire d'arch& olopie ehritfenne et de litnrpie, fase. i., cola. 1-25, Paris, 1903, and contains diagrams and very full and definite references to the literature.

ALPHZUS, al-ff'os: Father of the second James in all four of the lists of the apostles. He is interesting in so far as he may with probability be identified with the Clopas (A. V. Cleophas) of John xix. 25. Of the two Mart's who stood by the cross with the mother of Jesus, one is called in this passage the wife of Clopas; in Matt. xxvil. 56 and in Mark xv. 40, the mother of James, or James the Less, presumably the second apostle of this name. The question how the use of two different names, Alpha'u8 and Clopas, is to be explained may be answered in two ways. Either B1znrds (e8a,e6lras, a contraction of KAe6rarpos, as 'Avrflras of 'A-hrarpos) was the Greek name which Alpbeeus bore in addition to his Aramaic one; or there are here two alternative Grecized forms, both representing 'B~R. Against the former view is the fact that the contraction KAw for Ko G

names is never found else where· and in favor of the latter is the fact that the initial f1, commonly rendered by the smooth breathing or by %, is sometimes also represented by H. In any case

the diversity of names need not prevent the identity of person. This identity would make Alphaeus the uncle, and James, the son of Alphwus, the cousin, of Jesus-a result of some importance for the question as to James (q.v.). (K. SCHMIDT.)

The most probable solution of this muclll vexed problem seems to lie in a ground form '0h, the two modes of pronouncing the first letter of which (as in Arabic) would give rise to the variant names Alphwus and Clopas or Cleophas.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. B. Lightfoot, Galatians, p. 267, London, 1890; T. Keim, Jesus of Natara, iii. 276, London, 1878;

ALSACE-LORRAINE (Germ. Elsass-Lothringen): An immediate "imperial territory" (Reichsland), forming the extreme southwest of the German empire, bounded on the north by the grand duchy of Luxemburg, Rhenish Prussia, and the Rhine Palatinate (Rhenish Bavaria), on the east by Baden, on the south by Switzerland, and on the west by France. Its area is 5,603 square miles, with a population (1905) of 1,814,630, including 1,375,300 (75.8 per cent.) Roman Catholics, 4(16,100 (22.3 per cent.) Protestants, and 33,130 (1.88 per cent.) Jews. The preponderance of Roman Catholics points back to the political conditions of the' sixteenth century, when the territory for the most part belonged to the house of Austria, the duke of Lorraine, and the bishops of Strasburg. The Reformation found entrance only in the free city of Strasburg and in certain other cities and minor dependencies; and much of the progress there made was lost under the dragoanades and through the work of the Jesuits in the time of Louis XIV.

property. There are also inspection districts, each having one clerical and two lay inspectors. At the head of the Church is a directory, a standing board, and an upper consistory, which meets yearly. The story consists of two laymen and one of the clerical inspectors appointed by the government, and two lay members chosen by the upper consis_ Cory. It has power to review all acts of presbyteries

and coneietories, manages all Church property, forms the intermediate body between Church and government, and appoints all ministers after consultation with presbyterial councils and

Metz, respectively. Rabbis receive salaries from the State, varying from 1,500 to 1,900 marks.

ALSTED, elated, JOHANN HEINRICH: Reformed theologian; b. at Ballerabach, near Herborn (43 m. n. of Wiesbaden), Nassau, 1588; d. at Weissenburg (Karlaburg, 240 m. ex.e. of Budapest), Siebenbfirgen, Hungary, Nov. 8, 1638. He studied at Herborn and became professor there in the philosophical faculty in 1610, and in the theological faculty in 1619. In 1629 he went to the newly founded University of Weissenburg. He represented the Church of Nassau at the Synod of Dort (1618-19). He was one of the famous teachers of his time, and compiled a series of compends of pretty nearly every branch of knowledge, which are interesting as showing the scholarly and literary methods and achievements of the seventeenth century. The most remarkable were Curses philosophici encyclopaedia (Herborn, 1620) and Encyclopaedia aeptem tomis distincta (ib. 1630). The first of these comprises two volumes; one a quarto of 3,072 pages, containing: i., qvatuor praecognita philosophies: archelogiat, hexilo&, technologic, didactxcaa; ii., undeeim seientim philosophiem theoretiete: metaphytdea, pneumatics, physicaa, aarathmetaea, geomet-a, a:osmograaphua, -cop-, geographia, opticaa, mus%ca, srehitectonica; iii., quinque Prudentice phiWophicm praeticte: ethics, mconomica, politics, scholastics, historica; vol. ii. gives the septem arks hberalw. The second work, in two folios, includes as its first, third, and fourth divisions the three given above, and adds: ii., philologis, i.e., lexiea, grammatica, rhetories, logica, oraatoria, poetica; v., tree facultates principes: theologis, jurisprudentia, medicina; vi., artea mechanicce; vii., a miscellaneous section, prmcipum farraginm disciplinarum : mnemonita, historica, chronologia, srchiteaortics, critics, maagia, alchymia, magnetogrsphda, etc., including even tabacologia, or the dodnna ale nsturs, vsu et abuse taabaes. Theology is divided into seven branches: natturalis, csteehetica, didactica, polemmica, casuum, prophetica (homiletics), and moraalia. He also wrote a DiaatrZe de mille annia (Frankfort, 1627), in which he fixes the beginning of the millennium at the year 1694.

QeadIachaft, 1895, pp. 29 sqq·; H. F. Criegern, J. A. Co meniue GIs Theolop, pp. 365 sqq., Leipsic, 1881.

L In Primitive Religion: The word "altar," derived ultimately from the Latin alerc, " to nourish," through altu8, derived meaning " high,"

is usually taken to mean a raised structure; but etymology and history are against this. " Altar " is the rendering in the Old Testament of mizbeah (Aram. madhbah), " place of sacrifice," and in the New Testament of thusiasterion, having the same meaning. The Greek word b6mos indeed means a raised structure; but the possession of two words by the Greek suggests development r. Altar not and differentiation. The Latin ara Necessarily means the seat or resting-place, not

To understand the development of the altar it must be recalled that, as is generally conceded, religion has passed through the animistic stage. That is to say, man in his primitive state might regard any object-tree, rock, mountain, fountain, stream, sea, etc.-as the seat of divine power. His mental processes then led him to approach whatever he regarded as divinity as he approached human superiors, namely with gifts, which he applied directly to the objects of his worship, casting his offerings into fountain, stream, sea, or fire, laying them at the foot or on the top of the mountain, or smearing oil or fat, or pouring blood or wine on the divine stone. In other words, these objects were both divinity and altar.

The best Biblical example of this primitive mode of thinking and acting is in the passage Gen. xxviii. 11-18. Jacob had pillowed his head on a stone, and there resulted his dream of the ladder. In accordance with the mental processes of his time, on awakening he conceived the cause of this dream to be the divinity in (or of) the stone-note his exclamation, " this is a Bethel " (a " place or house of God ")-and he " poured oil upon 2. Altar and the stone." In this he paralleled the

wells and springs reputed to have healing qualities, doubtless in pagan times the seat of worship (cf. Folk-Lore, in which many examples are given). The Greek and Roman custom of pouring a libation to Neptune into the sea at the beginning of a voyage will occur to the reader as a survival from the time when the sea was a deity and not merely the domain of one.

The stone (in the Old Testament the word is often rendered " pillar," q.v.) and cairn " or witness " (Gem. xxxi. 45-54; cf. Josh. xxiv. 26-27 with xxii. 26-27) were almost certainly such embodiments of the presence of deity (note the words, Gen. xxxi. 52, "This heap be witness and this pillar [stone] be witness," and, in Josh., " It [this stone] hath heard "); the covenant and oath were under the protection of the deity there present (cf. Bail-berith = " Baal [protector] of the covenant," Judges viii. 33, and El-berith = " God [protector] of the covenant," Josh. ix. 46, R. V., and the Greek Zeus orkios = " Zeus [protector] of the oath "). In the Genesis passage the covenantmaking feast, at which the clan and the deity were commensals, followed the appeal to the covenantguarding object. And while the fact is not expressly stated, that the pillar of Jacob and Laban was anointed hardly admits of question, in view of the custom attending the holding of such a feastsacrifice. At least in early times, then, the same object was- sometimes both divinity and altar.

The next step shows the differentiation between the two. The later Arabic term for altar is nuab from the same root as the Hebrew mqzebah (" pil lar "). It has been shown by W. R. Smith and Wellhausen in the works already cited that the ansab (pl. of nusb) were stones, the objects of worship, and later merely altars. This shows a development in conception. A similar unfolding took place in Hebrew practise (see II., below), where

stones are shown to have been used 3. Altar and as altars. But often among the He-

Differen- an altar was erected, and the two tiated. stood side by side (Hos. iii. 4; Isa.

xix. 19). Then the pillars came to be more or less ornate (cf. the Greek Hermw and the two pillars in Solomon's Temple, I Kings vii. 15-22, which last are hard to explain except as a transference to the Temple of the pillars customary at shrines). That the max?ebah represented deity is now generally granted. The old custom of applying the sacrifice to the monolith had become outworn; it was no longer deity but only deity's representative, and the altar was provided on which to place (or, in the case of fire-sacrifices, to consume) the offerings.

That the altars were rude at first, and that the elaborate ones of later times were the product of developed esthetic perceptions, is as clear from archeological investigations as is the development of the house and temple from the simple cave or booth dwellings, and of the elaborate ritual from the simple worship of primitive ages.

The location of altars is implicitly indicated in the foregoing. Wherever deity indicated its presence either by some such subjective manifestation

as a dream, or by terrestrial phenomena such as the issue of a fountain or of subterranean gases, or by such supposed interference in the sphere of human events as by a storm which changed the fortune of battle, or by aerial phenomena such as the formation of thunder-claps with resultant lightning on the crest of a mountain-thither men brought their offerings and there altars were found or placed. Naturally the tops of hills (see HIGH PLACER) and groves were universally adopted; and these passed from early to late possessors of the lands as sacred places. The one test was the supposed residence or frequent attendance of deity at the spot.

Post-Deuteronomic means exilic or postexilic and the history of the Hebrew altar is bound up with that of the Temple. The ef-

onomic. structure and equipment, while the differentiation of the altar of burnt offering and that of incense tells the story of advancing elaboration of cult. The " table of showbread " was in form and purpose an altar. GEo. W. GiLMORE.

III. In the Christian Church: The oldest designation of the place of celebration of the " Lord's Supper " is " the Lord's table " (Gk. trapeza kuriou, I Cor. x. 21). This expression or " table " alone or with an adjective (" holy, sacred, mystic table; " trapeza haere, hagia, mystikg, etc.) is used by the Greek Fathers. The general Greek word for altar (thysiast&ion) is less frequently used and b6moa is purposely avoided. -The Latin writers use menaa, altare altarium, but show repugnance to ara.

1. Before the Reformation: a. To about the Year 1000: As the oldest meeting-places of Christian worship, rooms in ordinary dwellings, differed essentially from the Jewish sanctuary in Jerusalem and from the temples of the Greeks and Romans, so also the " table of the Lord " differed from the Jewish

and heathen altars; and it is significant that the absence of altars in the Christian service was especially offensive to the heathen (Minucius Felix, Octavius, 10; Origen, contra Celaum, vii. 64, viii. 17; Cyprian, Ad Demetrianum, 12). The celebration of the agape and the Eucharist required a table, and it was but natural that the first disciples of the Lord, like himself, should celebrate the sacred mead

about and on a table. When the x. Form religious service was transferred from and private houses to special buildings,

celebration of the Eucharist was still continued. The frequent notices that the persecuted sought and found a safe hiding-place beneath the altar or embraced the legs of the altar as a sign of their distress (cf. Schmid, pp. 31-32, 69-70), as well as notices in Gregory of Tours (Miracw Zorum libm: vii., i. 28) and Paulus Silentiarius (Descriptio ecclesia S. Sophia, pp. 752 aqq.), that the altars in St. Peter's at Rome and in St. Sophia at Constantinople were supported by columns, presuppose the table-form of the altar. The recollection of this original form has never been lost in the Church, and to this day the table-altar is the rule in the Greek Church.

When relics first began to be transferred from their original resting-places to churches, their receptacles were placed beneath the altar-seldom before or behind it, and not until the Middle Ages above it. The space was then sometimes walled up, giving the altar a coffin- or chest-like form. Such altars ass found here and there as early as the fifth century, and during the Middle Ages they became usual. The terms martyrium and confessio were applied to such tombs as well as to the cryptlike space which held the coffin (area), to the coffin itself, and to the altar. To make it possible to see and touch the holy contents an opening (fenestrel7a) was left in front with a lattice of metal or marble (trdnsenna) or two doors (regiolce). It must not be assumed that all altars of the Middle Ages were provided with relics. A canopy (ciborium), supported by pillars, was frequently found as early as the time of Constantine. The material used was wood, stone, and metal; gold, silver, and precious stones were sometimes employed.

It was usual in antiquity to spread a table with a cloth in preparation for a banquet, and this custom

was transferred to " the table of the s. Acces- Lord." Optatus of Mileve in the second sories and half of the fourth century is the first to Ornaments- mention such a covering (De achis-

forth altar-cloths are more frequently mentioned. Their size can not be determined. They seem to have been generally of linen, though other materials, as silk and gold-brocade, were used. Only one such covering was used at first, later the number varied. To this period belongs the corporals (called also palls corporalis, oportorium dominici corporis, Gk. sindan), in which the bread intended for the oblation was wrapped (Isidore of Pelusium, Epiat., i. 123). Later there were two corporalia (or palhe): one spread over the altar-

cloths, on which the holy vessels stood; the other used to cover the cup and the paten. In time the name corporate was restricted to the first of these, and palla was used for the second. Both were of linen. Among the most elaborate and costly of altar-appendages in the Romanesque period were the antependia or frontalia, which were used as decorations for the altar-front; the back and the sides of the altar also were often adorned in like manner. When altars of gold and silver are mentioned it is probable that in most cases metal plates in the front of the altar are meant. The oldest specimens which have been preserved date from the ninth to the twelfth centuries. They represent scenes from Bible history and the lives of saints, usually with the figure of Christ in the center. Precious stones and glass are inserted. Antependia were also made of costly cloths with gold and silver embroidery, and mosaics and reliefs were built into the sides of the altar. Crosses are represented in these decorations, and stood near altars; they were also placed above or hung below the ciborium, but in the first millennium crucifixes did not stand on the altars. In like manner lamps were hung from the ciboria or stood about the altars, but not on them.

At first there was only one altar in the place of worship, symbolic of unity. In a basilica without transepts it stood at the center of the chord of the apse. The Eastern Church retained the single altar; but in the West the number increased under the influence of the custom of private masses and the veneration of relics. A church in Gaul in the

time of Gregory the Great (d. 604) had 3. Number thirteen; the cathedral at Magdeand burg, forty-eight. After the year Varieties 1000 altars received different names

The main altar was called the altars majus, capita--, cardinals, magistrum, or principale, " high altar "; the others were allaria minors. After Alexander VI. began to grant special indulgences at certain altars the term altars privilegiatum came into use; a mass for the dead read at such an altar brought plenary indulgence. Abbey-churches had an altar dedicated to the holy cross (altars sancta crucis), placed between the choir and the nave, and intended for the lay brothers. Portable altars (altaria viatica, portabilia, itineraria, gestatoria, motoria) are mentioned from the seventh century; they were used by missionaries, prelates, and princes on journeys:

b. From the Year 1000 to 1800: Theincreasing veneration which was paid to relics led early in this period to a desire to place holy remains on the altar -not beneath it or near it as had been done previously. In the thirteenth century, relics on the altar were a part of its regular equipment. When the entire body of a saint was removed from its original resting-place some special provision for its shrine had to be made, and this led to an extension of the altar at the rear (retabulum). Wood or stone was used, and decorations similar to those of altars were provided. In some instances such rdabula took the place of the canopies; where the latter were retained they began to be made in two

stories, the relic-case being put in the upper one. Many such cases have been preserved; they are made of copper, silver, gold, and ivory, and are ornamented with enamel, filigree-work, and gems. Altars were surrounded with columns connected by cross-bars from which curtains hung. Railings fencing off the altar were known to the earlier time, but were not general. They became more common with the growing distinction between clergy and laity, and as the number of the clergy increased, the size of the chancel became greater. From the thirteenth century, crosses, crucifixes, and candles appear on the altar. The position of the cross and the lights was not fixed, and the latter numbered one or two, seldom more. Other articles which belonged to the altar furniture were gospel-books, often in costly binding, flabellay little bells, and thuribles.

a From 1800 to the Reformation: The ciborium altar lasted through the period of Romanesque art and even defied the influence of the Gothic. In France the retabulum was retained till toward 1400, but in Germany before that time it gave way to higher structures built upon the altar. The tendency to regard such additions as mere receptacles for the relic-cases disappeared. The holy remains were again placed within the altar, or, if retained upon it, filled only a subordinate part. Wood came to be more generally used as material. Doors were provided for the shrine. Later both shrine and doors were set upon a pedestal (predellu), which after 1475 became an integral part of the altar. The earlier altars of this period hold rigidly to the Gothic style, but later more freedom is apparent. Carving, sculpture, reliefs, and painting were freely used as decoration.

century the pulpit began to be placed behind the altar, and elevated above it, and then the organ and choir were placed above the pulpit. The result was to dwarf and degrade the altar, and the tasteless pictures and other decorations of the time do not diminish the displeasing effect. The nineteenth century brought a return to the early Christian and Gothic forms. The altars of the latest time are marked by eclecticism and by a striving after novelty which often mixes discrepant elements.

In the Church of England, after the Reformation much stress was laid by many Reformers on bringing the altar down into the body of the church and designating it as the "Holy Table," the name

which it nearly always bears in the The Prayer-book. By the eighteenth cen-

BIBLIOGRAPHY: On primitive altars, besides the works mentioned in the text, consult: C. Maurer, De aris Grmcorum plurs'bus deis in commune positis, Darmstadt. 1885; R B. Tylor, Early Hint. of Mankind, London, 1878; idem, Hist, of Civilization, ib. 1891; J. G. Fraser, Golden Bough, 3 vole., ib.1900. On Jewish altars: P. Seholte. G6tsendiewt undZaubaoeaen, Regensburg, 1865; C.-Piepenbring, Histoire des lieuz de culte et du sacerdoce en Israel, in RHR, a3av. (1891)10, 133-186; Bensinger, Archdolopie, § 52; Nowaok, Archdologie, ii., ¢ § 73 eqq.; A. van Hoonacker, Ls lieu du cults dons la l4gielation ritualle des Hebrew, 1894; A. F. von Gall, Altisraelitische Kultsttitte, in ZATW, iii. (1898). On Christian altars: J. Pocklington, Altare Chris0anum, London, 1637; Sven Bring, Diseertatio hisforica de fundatione et dotatione altarium, ib. 1751; J. Blaekburne, A Brie/ Historical Inquiry into the Introduction o/ Stone Altars into the Christian Church, Cambridge, 1844; On the Hitt. of Christian Altars, published by the Cambridge Camden Society, 1845; M. Meurer, Altarschmuck, Leipsie, 1867; A. Schmid, Der chrisaichs Altar and rein Schmuck, Ratisbon, 1871; Charles Rohault de Fleury, La Messe, Etudes archhologiques cur see monuments, 8 vole., Paris, 1883-89 (the most comprehensive collection of the material, with illustrations, to the close of the Romanesque period); E. U. A. Monsenberger and S. Beisel, Zur Kenntnus and Wiirdigung der mittelalterlichsn Altars Deutschlands, 2 vole., Frankfort, 1885-1901; V. State, Gothische Altnre, Berlin, 1886; A. Hartel, Altars and Kan816r des Minelalters and der Neweit, Berlin, 1892; N. Moller, Ueber das deutach-evangeiische Kirchsnpebllude im Yahrhundert der Reformation, Leipsic, 1895; H. D. M. Spence, White Robe of Churches, pp. 210-243, New York, 1900; E. Bishop, History of the Christian Altar, London, 1906. Consult also works on Christian archeology and Christian art, especially Christian architecture.

ALTAR-BREAD: The bread used in .the Roman Catholic and Greek churches in the Sacrament of the Eucharist. It is made from pure wheaten flour, m xed with water, and baked, all conditions being regulated by strict law. The Council of Florence, to meet the contention of Michael Caerularius that the Latins did not possess the Eucharist because of their use of unfermented bread, defined that either kind may be validly employed. Never-

theless, it is unlawful to-day for a Latin priest to use fermented, or for a Greek priest, except in the Armenian and Maronite rites, to use unfermented bread. The practise of the Greeks has always been the same, but in the Western Church both fermented and unfermented bread were employed down to the ninth century. The altar-bread is also called a host, because of the victim whom the sacramental species are destined to conceal. In the Latin Church the host is circular in form, bearing an image of the crucifixion or the letters I. H. S., and is of two sizes; the larger is consumed by the celebrant or preserved for solemn exposition, and the smaller given to the people in communion. The name " particles " given to the smaller hosts recalls the fact that down to the eleventh century communion was distributed to the faithful by breaking off portions of a large bread consecrated by the celebrant. The large host of the Greeks is rectangular in shape, and the small host triangular. Great care is taken in the preparation of altar-breads, many synodal enactments providing that it shall be committed only to clerics or to women in religious communities.

ALTAR-CARDS: Three cards, containing certain prayers of the mass, placed on the altar in Roman Catholic churches, the central card being larger than those placed at either end. Their introduction dates from the sixteenth century, when the middle card began to be employed as an aid to the memory of the celebrant and to relieve him from the necessity of continually referring to the missal. When the reading of the beginning of St. John's Gospel was prescribed, the card on the Gospel side was added, and later, to make the arrangement appear symmetrical, the third card came into use. In masses celebrated by a bishop, the practise anterior to the sixteenth century is maintained by the substitution of a book called the canon, from which are read the prayers usually printed on altar-cards. Since most of these prayers are to be said secretly or inaudibly, altar-cards are sometimes called secret-cards. JOHN T. CREAGH.

ALTENBURG, COLLOQUY OF. See PHILIPPI$T

ALTENSTEIN, al"ten-stain', KARL FREIHERR VON STEIN ZUM: German statesman,. first minister of public worship in Prussia (1817-40); b. at Anabach (20 m. w.s.w. of Nuremberg), Bavaria, Oct. 1, 1770; d. in Berlin May 14, 1840. He lost his father at the age of nine, and to the fact that his character was formed under the influence of his mother has been attributed his incapacity in after-life for making thoroughgoing and clearcut decisions. He was educated in his birthplace and at the universities of Erlangen and Gdttingen, where he studied law primarily, but found plenty of time for researches in philosophy, especially the philosophy of religion, and the natural sciences. In 1793 he received a minor legal appointment at Anebach, which in the mean time had become Prussian. Here he was under Hardenberg, who recognized his ability and had him transferred to

Berlin in 1799. At the capital he gained the reputation of an authority in financial matters, and was made a privy councilor in the financial department in 1803, succeeding Stein as minister of finance in 1808. Unable to cope with the almost impossible task of satisfying the demands of Napoleon, he retired in 1810. Hardenberg, who had been compelled to join in overthrowing him, tried three years later to bring him back to public life, and in 1817 secured his appointment as head of the newly founded ministry of public worship, education, and medicine. These important branches of public administration had until then formed departments of the ministry of the interior, and had been badly managed.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Freiherr von Stein, in Deutede Revue, vol. vii., 1882; H. Treitschke, Deutsche Geerhichte in 19. Jahr

ALTHAMER, al'thcm"er, AM)?REAS (sometimes known by the Greek form of his name, Palaiosphyra): German Reformer; b. in the village of Brenz, near Gundelfingen (28 m. n.w. of Augsburg), Wiirttemberg, c. 1500; d. at Ansbach, probably in 1519. He studied at Leipsic and Tilbingen. In 1524 he is found settled as priest at Gm0nd in Swabia, where he was the leader of the evangelical party, and he remained there after he had been deposed and had married. He escaped with difficulty in the reaction of the Swabian League, and fled to Wittenberg, remaining there nine months and proceeding to Nuremberg in the summer of 1526. His Lutheran convictions were now mature, and he maintained a constant literary activity against both the Zwingliane and the Roman Catholics. He was pastor at Eltersdorf, near Erlangen, in 1527, deacon at St. Sebaldus's, Nuremberg, in 1528; he took part as an ardent Lutheran in the disputation at Bern, and in the same year was called to Ansbach to assist in spreading the Reformation in Brandenburg. In November he published a complete catechism, remarkable not only for the clearness and precision of its teaching, but also as being the first work of the kind to take the title of catechism. For the next few years he was the soul of the Protestant party in that part of Germany, and by his untiring energy and gifts of organization did much in the development there of the evangelical religion. Of his theological works may be mentioned his Annotationes in Jacobi

Epistolam (Strasburg, 1527), which carried still further Luther's views of that epistle, though it was modified in the edition of 1533. His notes on the Germania of Tacitus, published in complete form 1536, have preserved his fame as a classical scholar even where the Reformer has been forgotten.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Kolde, Andreas Attharner, der Humanist and Refornaator in Brandenburp-Anabach, Erlangen, 1895 (contains a reprint of his catechism).

ALTHAUS, PAUL: German Protestant; b: at Fallersleben (17 m. n.e. of Brunswick) Dec. 29, 1861. He was educated at the universities of Eflangen and G6ttingen, and held various pastorates from 1887 to 1897, when he was appointed associate professor of practical and systematic theology at the University of Gottingen, becoming full professor two years later. He has written Die historische and dogmatische Grundlage der lutherischen Tauftiturgie (Hanover, 1893) and Die Heilsbedeutung der Taufe im Neuen Testament (Giitersloh, 1897).

ALTING, JOHANN HEINRICH: Reformed theologian; b. at Emden (70 m. w.n.w. of Bremen), East Friesland, Feb. 17, 1583; d. at Groningen (92 m. n.e. of Amsterdam) Aug. 25, 1644. He studied at Groningen and Herborn, acted as tutor for several German princes, and traveled as far as England. In 1613 he became professor of dogmatics at Heidelberg, and in 1616 director of the seminary in the Collegium Sapientite. Leaving Heidelberg because of the disturbances of the Thirty Years' war, he went to Holland, and in 1627 was appointed professor at Groningen. He was one of the delegates from the Palatinate to the Synod of Dort (1618-19) and was a decided but Biblical predestinarian. He collaborated on the Dutch Bible version. He published nothing during his lifetime; after his death his son, Jacob Alting (b. at Heidelberg 1618; d. at Groningen, where he was professor of Hebrew, 1679) published several of his works, the most noteworthy being the Theologia historica (Amsterdam, 1664), a pioneer work on the history of doctrine. (E. F. KARL MtLLER.)

ALTMANN, 81t'man: Bishop of Passau 106591; d. at Zeiselmauer (12 m. n.w. of Vienna), Lower Austria, Aug. 8, 1091. A Westphalian of noble birth, he became first a student and then head of the school of Paderborn. Later he was provost of Aachen, then chaplain to Henry III., after whose death he was attached to the household of the Empress Agnes. In 1064 he made the pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and was chosen bishop of Passau before his return. He adhered steadfastly to Gregory VII. in his conflict with Henry IV., and was the first of the German bishops to proclaim against the king the sentence of excommunication which had been pronounced in Rome. He allied himself with the South German princes, and acted as papal legate in the assemblies at Uhn and Tribur in the autumn of 1076. Rudolf of Swabia had no more faithful partizan. As a result of thin attitude, Altmann had to leave his diocese, which suffered severely (1077-78) from Henry's resentment. He went to Rome early in 1079, and was there when

BIBLIOGRAPHY: His life, by an anonymous author of the twelfth century, ed. W. Wattenbach, is in MGH, Script., xii. (1856) 226-243; another life by Rupert, abbot of Gottweig (d. 1199), is in MPL, cxlviu.; and there are modern lives by T. Wiedemann, Augsburg, 1851, J. Sttlla. Vienna, 1853, and A. Linsenmeyer, Passau, 1891. Consult C. Mirbt, Die Publiiiatik im Zeitalter Gregors VII., Le'psic, 1894; W. Martens, Gregor VII., ib. 1894; Hauck, KD, iii. 341.

ALTRUIST COMMUNITY. See Conmulvlsm, II., 2. ALUMBRADOS. See ALOMBRADG8.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Hinschius, Kirchsnrecht, iv. 503 sqq. 517, Berlin, 1888; O. Meier, Die Propapaada, i. 73 sqq., 225 eqq., Gottingen, 1852.

Spanish Christian champion against the Mohammedans; b. about 800; d. about 861. His ancestors appear to have been Jews, and his family was wealthy. He lived, highly esteemed, upon an inherited estate near Cordova, where he was educated with his lifelong friend Euloaus (q.v.) by the abbot Spemindeo (d. before 852), author of a work against Islam and of a glorification of two Christian brothers who suffered martyrdom under Abd al-Rahman II. From this teacher Alvar and his fellow pupil imbibed a feeling of hatred toward the Mohammedans. Spanish Christians at the time were filled with a fanatical longing for martyrdom and found an easy way to the attainment of their desire by publicly reviling Mohammed, which was forbidden under the penalty of death. Alvar encouraged such proceedings, while Eulogius, after some hesitation, became the soul of the movement. In Alvar's chief work, the IndicOus luminostt8 (854), he undertakes to prove that Mohammed was a precursor of Antichrist and that it was therefore permissible to revile him. That he did not himself seek a martyr's death is explained by the often-repeated assertion of Eulogius, that only such should sacrifice themselves as were ripe for eternal life through personal holiness. The movement died out after Eulogius had suffered (859), and Alvar then wrote his friend's life in a strain of extravagant glorification. His last and most mature work was a Confessio, imitated (but not slavishly) from the Oratio pro correptione vine of Isidore of Seville; in mystico-contemplative form it expresses deep contrition and the longing for salvation. A few of Alvar's Latin poems have been preserved, and a Inter scintillarum, a sort of Christian ethics in the form of a collection of quo-. tations from Biblical and ecclesiastical writers, is ascribed to him with probability by a Gothic manuscript of Madrid (cf. MPL, xc. 94-95). His works are in MPL, exv., exxi.

ALYPIUS, SAINT: 1. A saint of the Roman Calendar; b. of a prominent family at Thagaste, Numidia, in the fourth century. He became a pupil of Augustine in Carthage and later one of his most devoted friends, and was converted from Manicheanism by him. He preceded Augustine to Rome to study law and was assessor there to the court of the Italian treasury. When Augustine went to Milan, Alypius accompanied him, attended the preaching of Ambrose, was converted to Christianity, and baptized with Augustine on Easter, 387. With Augustine he returned to Africa and lived with him at Thagaste till in 391 Augustine became bishop of Hippo and Alypius abbot of a monastery at. Thagaste. In 394 he became bishop of Thagaste and survived Augustine. His day is Aug. 15. He is mentioned many times in Augustine's " Confessions" (v'i. 7-16 and elsewhere), and several of Augustine's letters to him have been preserved.

2. A saint of the Greek Calendar; b. at Adrianople about 550. In imitation of Simeon he stood upon a pillar, hence was called The Stylite. He

is said to have died at the age of 108, and to have spent his last fifty years on his pillar. His day is Nov. 26. See STyLrrEs.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: 1. ASB, Aug., iii. 201-208. 2. $imeon Metaphrastes, Vita sandi Alypii Cionitaa, ed. L. suriue, in De probatis sandomm hiatoriie, Nov., vi. 688-595, Cologne, 1575.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. %. Kraus, t#edachtnisarede out johannes Aiw, Freiburg, 1879.

AMADEISTS, See FuANcis, SAINT, oh Assisi, AND THE FRANCISCAN ORDER, III., § 7.

antiphonaries at the abbey of Corbie. He came home to revise his earlier book in the light of new sources, and compile an antiphonary based on the Frankish ones together with these Roman texts; the commentary on this forms his work De ordine antiphonarii. After the restoration of Louis to the throne, the rebellious archbishop of Lyons, Agobard (q.v.), was deposed, and Amalarius was put in charge of his diocese. Here he used his power to bring about a sweeping change in the liturgy, but aroused strong opposition, led by the deacon Florus, a warm partizan of Agobard, who worked against Amalarius unceasingly, and finally accused him of heresy at the Synod of Quiercy in 838. The synod condemned some of his expressions, and Agobard, shortly afterward returning to Lyons, began to undo all that he had done in regard to the liturgy. Nothing is known of his later life, except that in the controversy over Gottschalk's teaching he wrote in support of Hincmar. He is said to have been buried in the abbey of St. Arnulf at Metz., His writings give an insight into the liturgical forms of the early ninth century, and are especially illuminating on the relation of the Gallican liturgies to the Roman, which was gaining steadily in the Frankish empire. To its permanent conquest over the Gallican, Amalarius's work undoubtedly contributed. He is also important from his influence on later medieval liturgiologists, many of whom follow his mystical method, and most of whom quote him extensively. He shows a wide knowledge of Scripture and the Fathers, with praiseworthy diligence and conscientiousness in the use of his authorities. His works are in MPL, cv. (RUDOLF SABRE.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. M6achmeyer, Amalar von Metz, sein iAUri and seine Schnftm manater, 1893; Hiatoire uuB. raire de la France, vol. iv.; Ceillier, Auteura aacrh, vole. xviii., xix., Paris, 1752,1754; Hefele, ConeilisnWeachiehu, vol. iv.; R. 8ahre, Der Liturpiker Amnlarius, Dresden, 1893.

AMALARIQS OF TREVES (AMALARIUS FORTUNATUS): Archbishop' of Treves. Little is known of his life, but he is not the same as the liturgiologist Amalarius of Metz, with whom he has been identified. He became archbishop about 809, and is supposed to be the Bishop Amalharius whom Charlemagne commissioned about 811 to consecrate the newly erected church at Hamburg. In the spring of 813 he set out for Constantinople with Abbot Peter of Nonantula, to bring to a conclusion the negotiations for peace between the Frankish and Byzantine courts. The envoys, learning that Michael, to whom they were accredited, had been succeeded by Leo V., remained eighty days in Constantinople, and returned in company with two Byzantine ambassadors, to find Charlemagne's son Louis on the throne. This is the last known fact in Amalarius's life. There is no solid foundation for the assumption that he died in 814 or 816. Certain passages in a letter of his to Hilduin, abbot of Saint-Denis (ed. G. Meier, in Neues Archiv ftir 4ltere deutsche Geschichtskunde, xiii., 1887, 307-323), have led to the supposition that he resigned his see (his successor Hetti was in possession of it in 816) and lived some time longer as head of a monastery. His writings are a short

treatise on baptism, formerly ascribed to Alcuin, in answer to a letter of inquiry addressed by Charlemagne to the archbishops of his empire (in MPL, xcix. 887-902), and the 0doporicum or Versus marini, a poem of eighty hexameters, giving an account of his journey to Constantinople (MPL, ci. 1287-88, among the works of Alcuin; ed. E. Dummler, in MGH, Poette lat. nevi Carol., i. 426-428, 1881; cf. Addenda, ii. 694).

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Rettberg, KD, i. 428-428; J. Marx, Goachichte des Ersstifts Trier, Trier, 1858--82; Hauck, KD, ii. 192. '

BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Dillmann, Commentary on Genesis, on chaps. x. and xxxvi., 2 vole., Edinburgh, 1897 (beet); T. Ngldeke, Ueber die Amaiekiter and einips andere Nacbbmroclker der Israeliten; Gottingen. 1884; A. H. 8syee, Races of the Old TeetamenC London, 1891; DB, i. 77-78; RD. i. 128-131.

AMALRIC, a-mal'rik (Fr. Amaury), OF BENA AND THE AMALRICIANS, a-mal-rish'ans: A notable representative of pantheism in the Middle Ages and his followers. Amalric was born at Bena, near Chartres, and toward the end of the twelfth century lectured in Paris on philosophy and theology. He enjoyed the reputation of a subtle dialectician, and the favor of the Dauphin, afterward King Louis VIII. How far he carried his pantheism in the public teaching can not now be determined; but his doctrine of the membership of believers in the body of Christ was so pantheistic in tendency that it aroused suspicion, and he was accused of heresy by the chancellor of the diocese, who exercised an official oversight over the schools of Paris. In 1204 he was summoned to Rome to give an account of his teaching before Innocent III., who decided against him. Returning to Paris, he was forced to recant. Soon afterward he died, and received churchly burial at St: Martin-des-Champs (1 m. e. of Morlaix, Finistiire). After his death traces of a sect formed by him were discovered, and a synod was called in Paris in 1209 to take measures for its suppression. Amalric's teaching was condemned, and he himself was excommunicated; nine ecclesiastics together with William the Goldsmith, one of the seven prophets of the sect, were burned at the stake. At the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215, Innocent III. renewed the condemnation of Amalric's teaching.

There is no doubt that Amalric took up the teaching of Johannes Scotus Erigena, and developed it into a thoroughgoing pantheism. Only three propositions can certainly be ascribed to Amalric himself: (1) that God is all things; (2) that every Christian is bound to believe himself a member of Christ, and that none can be saved without this faith; and (3) that no sin is imputed to those who walk in love. The teaching of his disciples is an expansion of these theses. God, they said, has revealed himself thrice, and each time more completely. With the incarnation in Abraham the epoch of the Father begins; with the incarnation in Mary, that of the Son; with the incarnation in the Amalricians, that of the Holy Spirit. As the coming of Christ set aside the Mosaic law, so the sacraments and ordinances of the second dispensation were now abolished. The sect called the veneration of the saints idolatry; the Church, the Babylon of the Apocalypse; the pope, Antichrist. The revelation of the Holy Ghost in the hearts of the believers takes the place of baptism, and is indeed the resurrection of the dead and the kingdom of heaven; no other is to be expected; nor is there any hell but the consciousness of sin. Their doctrine, that the spirit, which is God, can not be affected by the deeds of the flesh, or commit sin, became a cover for manifold excesses, proven not only by contemporary records, but also by numerous testimonials as to the Brethren of the Free Spirit, who were the direct successors of the Amalricians. (A. HAucg.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sources are: G. Armoricus, De pesos PhilippiAupusN, in Bouquet, Reeuea, xvii. 83; B. Guido, Vita

C. Hahn. Geschichte der Ketser in Mittelalter, iii. 178 eqq., Stuttgart, 1845; Kronlein, Amalrich von Bena and David van Dinart, in TSK, xii. (1847) 271 aqq.; W. Preger, Gewhichts der deutachen Mystik im Mi#dalter, i.166 aqq., 173 eqq., Leipaic, 1874; A. Jundt, Hiatoire du panthHame populaire au =*yen dgs, p. 20, Paris, 1875; H. Renter, GeachiAte der relipiesen Autklarunp in Mittalalter, ii. 218 sqq., Berlin, 1877.

AMANDUS, a-man'dus: Bishop and missionary of the Franks; d. at the abbey of Elno, near Toumai, Feb. 6, 661 (?). He was a man of rank from Aquitania, took holy orders in early youth against the will of his father, and lived in a cell in the city-wall of Bourges till he was induced by a vision of St. Peter to give himself up to missionwork in Friesland. He preached and baptized near Ghent. The Frankish government neglected to protect the mission near the frontier, and the hostility of the haughty Friealanders hindered the work. Amandus therefore went to Carinthia and Carniola to seek a better field among the Slavic invaders, south of the Danube. Here, however, he was not successful; and he returned to Ghent, where he founded two monasteries, Blandinium and Gundarum, and a third, Elno, near Tournai. From these the Friesian mission-work was carried on with more success. Amandus was made bishop of Maastricht, and in this position he helped to carry through the Roman resolutions against the Monothelites, and tried to reform the clergy. As the latter showed themselves obstinate, he retired from his see between 647 and 649, entered the abbey of Elno, and worked to the end of his life for the conversion of the Frankish and Basque heathen. He was said to have performed miracles, and it was believed that miracles occurred at his tomb, which became a place of pilgrimage.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: Baudemund and Milo wrote accounts of his life which with other sources are in ASR, Feb., i. 815-903. Consult Gosae. Esaai cur St. Amend, 1868; J. J. de Smedt, Vie de St. Amend Ghent, 1881; Rettberg, KD, i. 554. ii. 507-508; Friedricl, KD, ii. 322; J. Deeilve, De schola Elnonenei S. Amandi, Louvain, 1890; Hauck, KD, i . 269 sqq.

AMANDUS, JOHANNES. See ALBERT oh PRus slw, § 2.

all other cults and to unify the religion of Egypt (see EaYrr, L). His attempt was of course opposed byall the priesthoods of all the other cults, and after his death his name was held accursed because of his efforts in that direction. His position in Egypt was very like that of Julian " the Apostate " among the Christians of Rome. The place which he built for his capital was allowed to fall into ruins, not being occupied after his death by any other king. It is this fact which accounts for the presence of the tablets there and also for their preservation. The foreign office of his reign with its archives was located there, and when the palace was disused, the chamber where the tablets were kept was covered by the dBbris of the disintegrating buildings. These facts constitute one of the strongest proofs of the genuineness of the documents, which indeed is established beyond all question. The mound was excavated in 18912 by W. M. F. Petrie and a corps of assistants under the auspices of the Egypt Exploration Fund. The finds made were most valuable, although the site had been rifled by Arabs and travelers. The entire reign of the king whose capital was there was illuminated by the finds, and the activities, religious, political, and industrial, were laid bare. That excavation was the result, however, not the cause, of the finding of the tablets. One of the hopes was that other tablets would be discovered, a hope which largely stimulated the search but was not realized.

II. The Tablets: The discovery was accidental. In 1887 a peasant woman while searching in the ruins for antiquities to sell to travelers discovered the place of deposit within the palace enclosure. The tablets were all taken out, naturally without the extreme care which skilled excavators would have used, were conveyed down the river, and sold. Eighty-two letters and fragments came into the possession of the British Museum, 160 went to Berlin, the Gizeh museum has sixty, while a few are in private hands. In all, about 320 documents of the aeries are known. Some fragments were afterward found in the place of deposit by Petrie, verifying the location as given by the peasants, but adding hardly anything to the knowledge already gained. The tablets are different in many respects, particularly in shape, from those recovered from Babylonian and Assyrian mounds. Most of them are rectangular, a few are oval, some are flat on both sides, some convex on both, some pillow-shaped, some are kiln-dried, others sundried. Many of them confirm by the texture of the clay the assertions of the inscriptions as to their sources. Six of them are the largest known of this species of tablet, measuring ten inches by eight. The language, except in three of the documents, is the neo-Babylonian, closely related to Assyrian, Aramaic, Hebrew, and Arabic, approximating most closely the Assyrian. One letter is in the Hittite language but in the cuneiform script. Sometimes a Sumerian ideograph is used, of which the explanation occasionally follows either in Atisyrian or in Canasnitic. In all but half a dozen tablets the general character of the writing is inferior, showing the work of unskilled scribes.

III. Authors and Contents: With the exception of some fragments of a bilingual dictionary, compiled by order of the Pharaoh, and a mythological fragment, the tablets are letters, most of which deal with the political situation of Syria, Palestine, and Philistia. The most noteworthy are the following: One letter is from Amenophis . III. to Yallima-Sin of the Babylonian Kasshite dynasty, asking the latter for a daughter as a wife and replying to the latter's insinuation that there was no information that a former wife, sister of KAVima-Sin, was yet alive and well-treated. Four letters from Kallima-Sin to Amenophis III. complain that a Babylonian envoy was kept in Egypt six years, and when sent back brought only a small quantity of gold, and that of inferior quality. He asks more and better gold, which is needed at once for a building which he is erecting; he asks for a daughter of Amenophis as a wife, or if not that, then some one whom he can palm off as a daughter of the Pharaoh. One of the letters shows that he is sending his daughter to the harem of Amenophis. There are six letters of Burnaburiash of Babylon to Amenophis IV., assuring the latter of the former's fraternal feelings, asking presents and promising others in return, also seeking help against his " vassal " Asshur-uballit of Assyria who revolts against the suzerain power. There is also a letter of Asshur-uballit to Amenophis IV., seeking presents, including gold for the decoration of a palace, similar to those which had been sent to his father Asshur-nadin-ahi, and promising others in return. Some of the finest, longest, and best-written are from Tushratta, king of Mitanm (see Assxau), to Amenophis IV., one of whose wives is a sister of Tushratta. One of these promises a daughter of the writer to the Pharaoh, but it is expected that a great deal of gold (not alloyed like the last that was sent) will be returned for her. After considerable delay and, apparently, bargaining also the daughter was sent. This series tells too, of a victory of Tushratta over the Hittites, and

might be taken to prove that Mitanni was not a Hittite kingdom. Three from the same person to Amenophis IV. include in their contents condolence upon the death of the Pharaoh's father, for which consolation is found by the writer in the fact that the son of that father succeeds to the throne; friendly relations are promised; two golden statuettes which have been promised are asked for (not wooden one likes those which have been sent); complaints are made about the detention of ambassadors in Egypt; and gold is requested. Tushratta also writes a letter to the queen dowager Ti, asking her good offices with the Pharaoh in urging the latter to fulfil the engagements entered into.

The rest of the tablets contain correspondence from petty kings and governors of Amoritic, Syrian, Palestinian, and Cypriote (7) cities to the Pharaohs, telling of revolts and assaults upon the Pharaoh's authority, and of invasions by the Hittites and Habiri; or they make accusations against other of the Pharaoh's governors, or defend themselves as loyal subjects of Egypt. The most noteworthy of these are a series from Alashia (either a district in north Syria or Cyprus); fifty-seven from RibAddi of Gebal (Byblos) to the Pharaoh, and eight to Egyptian officers high in position; eight from Abi-Milki of Tyre (the name compounded of the name of the god for which " Moloch " was given in the Old Testament; see Mozocn); seven from Abd-,hsba of Jerusalem (the latter spelled U-ruaha-lim, " city of peace "; Winckler, Tell,I-Amarna LeUers, Letter 180, line 25), which tell of a confederation formed by Geser, Ashkelon, and Lachish against Jerusalem, and asking help against them and the Robin; two are from Ammunim of Beirut.

IV. Value of the Tablets: The results gained from the study of the documents are threefoldhistorical, geographical, and linguistic.

The most remarkable result of the discovery is the fact that the correspondence even between Egypt and its vassals was carried on not in Egyptian, but in an Asiatic tongue, and that the cuneiform. This implies that the entire area covered by the correspondence outside Egypt was controlled in culture by Babylonia. This control was so thoroughgoing that governmental

r. Histor- transactions and diplomatic interical. course were nerily carried on in the tongue of the lower Euphrates. The royal correspondence reveals the relations between the court of Egypt, on the one side, and the courts of Babylonia, Assyria, and Mitanni, on the other, consisting of intermarriages, with Egypt as the haughtier power in the earlier period, this strain of superiority giving way later to one of equality. The Pharaohs entered into marriage relations with the daughters of Asiatic regal houses, but at first refused and afterward granted the request for reciprocity in this respect. This division of the documents shows the kings making requests of each other for bakshish and complaining of the quality of that formerly given. Egypt seems the source of gold, and from the plaints appears guilty of attempting to cheat by alloying heavily the

metal which it sent as a present, in one case the proportion of pure gold being only six parts in twenty. The relation of Assyria to Babylonia receives side-light in the fact that the Babylonian asks help against his " vassal " Asahur-uballit of Assyria, who, however, seems to be in friendly relations with Egypt; a second point in this connection is contained in the reference in the Tushratta correspondence to the sending of the image of Ishtar of Nineveh to Egypt, which implies that Nineveh was then a part of Mitanni (see A88YRIA, vi., 2, and cf. C. Niebuhr, Studim . . . zur Geschichte des alter Orients, Leipsie, 1894, p. 92).

But the most important results historically are those which relate to the connections of Egypt with Syria and Palestine. Thothmes III. had carried the arms of Egypt as far as the Taurus Mountains. A period of Egyptian quiescence had followed, and, as a consequence, in the period of the letters Egyptian hegemony was threatened in three ways: first by revolts of the cities under governors who had been appointed by the Pharaoh or by the governors who were unfaithful; second, by a Hittite advance from the north and northeast; third, by the Habiri from the east. The correspondence abounds in charges by governors who claim to be faithful to the Pharaoh against other governors; and again and again they beg for help from him which apparently is not sent, though the news of continuous loss of territory is the burden of the letters. Some of the men charged with rebellion protest their fidelity and make countercharges, but in many cases practically confess their disloyalty by their excuses for not rendering service due or required. The whole situation is one of the weakening of Egyptian influence as its leadership and control slips away under the battering of the triplex adverse forces. The mention of the advance of the Hittites is most illuminating, showing the beginning of the empire established in the century following. The question raised by the frequent mention of the Habiri has been answered in three ways: (a) they were the Hebrews of the.Exodun just arriving from the wandering; (b) they were Hebrews, but not those of the Exodus, representing rather the Abrahamic-Lot tribes prior to the settlement in Egypt which is described in the last Chapters. of Genesis; (c) they were not Hebrews at all, but people of nomadic strain whose exact affiliations are unknown. The first of these three answers is not now supported by any prominent authority; the other two are still under debate. In favor of the second is the single Egyptian inscription (Meneptah's; see EGYPT) which plainly mentions the Hebrews as already in Canaan during the reign in which most modern scholars place the Exodus and before the tribes under Moses could have entered the land.

The geographical information can not be given here at length, since almost every item would require extended discussion. A large number of known cities or localities is named, such as Tyre, Sidon, Bybloa, Beirut, Ajalon, Accho, Megiddo, Kadesh, Gath, Lachish, Jerusalem, Mitanni, and Edom, Other places are mentioned in such connections that the approximate locality is recognized,

such as Tunip, south of Aleppo. Still other placenames appear in the correspondence, the exact or even approximate location of which is undetermined, such as ,Katna and Irkata. a. Geo- One hundred and thirty towns in all graphical. are mentioned. But the existence of these places is made known and their relative importance often appears from the character of the passage in which the names occur. For the political geography of the region and the time, these tablets are of the first importance.

BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. Winckler, Der Thontafeifund room ElAmarna, in Schrader, KB, v. 1. Berlin, 1896; idem, Tet-elAmarna Letters, New York, 1896 (transliterated text and tranel. in Germ. and Eng.); C. Besold, Oriental Diplomacy, London,.1893; C. R. Conder, Tel-e4Amarna Tablets, ib. 1893 (transL and discussion of the tablets in the British Museum); W. M. F. Petrie, Tel-el-Amarna, ib. 1894 (account of the excavation and its results); idem, Telal-Amarna Letters, ib. 1898; C. Niebuhr, Die AmarnaZeit. d'pypten and Vorderaaen um IWO eor Christus nach dem Thontafelfunde eon ehAmarna, Leipsic, 1899; Assyrian and Babylonian Literature, New York, 1901 (gives tranel. of selected letters). The discussion in periodicals has been very full; consult Presbyterian Review, x. (1888) 476-481; PSBA. x. (1888) 540-569; Babylonian and Oriental Record, iii . (1889) 286-288, v. (1891) 114-119; Bibliotheea Sacra, 1. (1893) 696; Thinker, ix . (1894) 408; Nation, lix. (Jan. 5, 1894).

BIBLIOGBAPHT: His history is in II Binge xiv. 1-20; II Chron. xxv. Consult the works mentioned under AHAB.

AMBO: A sort of raised platform in early Christian churches, used for a variety of purposes.

With the beginning of the Middle Ages, the mention of the ambo becomes frequent. Among the services of Pope Sixtus III. to the Church, Platina notes that he adorned the ambo or suggestus in the Basilica Liberiana, ubi evangelium et epistola canitur. The so-called liturgy of St. John Chrysostom contemplates the reading of the gospel in that place by the deacon. The use of the ambo for psalm-singing is evidenced, e.g., by the fifteenth canon of the Council of Laodicea (341?) which reads: "Besides the appointed singers, who mount the ambo and sing from the book, others shall not sing in the Church." While in primitive times the bishop was the only preacher, and taught the people from his throne or from the altar, in the succeeding centuries the cases grow more numerous in which he commits the office to other clergy, who choose the ambo from which to speak. Pastoral letters of the bishops were read from the same place. The ambo of St. Sophia in Constantinople had a special use, serving for imperial coronations. With all the variety of use the Middle Ages did not forget the original purpose of the ambo. Innocent III., commanding that the deacon shall go up into it to read the gospel, draws a parallel between it and the mountain from which the Lord taught the people. He prescribes two entrances; one for the deacon, the other for the subdeacon. It was considered proper that the gospel should be read from a higher step than the epistle, to show, as Hugh of St. Victor says, that the teaching of Christ is far higher than that of his apostles.

The early rule was to have only one ambo in each church, and this continued in the Middle Ages, except in the largest churches. The position of the ambo in the primitive and early medieval churches can not be positively determined; presumably it stood in the nave, in front of the division between nave and choir. Where there were two, they were placed one on each side against the columns dividing nave from aisles. Sometimes, as in St. Clement's at Rome, the ambo formed an integral part of the screen dividing the clergy from the laity. As to material, the ambo was frequently made of wood. That which Abbot Suger of St. Denis restored about the middle of the twelfth century was decorated with tablets of ivory, and Emperor Henry II. gave one to the cathedral of Aachen which had not only ivory, but precious atones and gilded copper-plates set in the wood. Most of the extant older ambos are of marble, frequently adorned with mosaics or reliefs on the sides toward the congregation. As far as it is possible to form a general conception of their structure, they consisted of a flat base, either square, oblong, hexagonal, or circular, supported by columns or a plinth, sometimes, however, resting on figures of lions or men. Access to the ambo was given by one or two flights of steps, and it was railed around in front and occasionally surmounted by a canopy. Decoration was mainly used on the surface of the front, and was of infinite variety, and frequently of great richness. Especially beautiful are the marble reliefs with Biblical and allegorical scenes made for the churches of northern and central Italy by the artists of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, with Niccolo Pisano at their head. Most of the ambos now extant are in Italy; notable northern examples are that already mentioned at Aachen, one at Halberstadt, and one at Windisch-Matrei. With the development of Gothic architecture the place of the ambo was taken in a general way by the rood-loft above the choirscreen, and the modern lectern and pulpit serve the same purpose. See PULPIT.