__________________________________________________________________ Title: The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. I: Aachen - Basilians Creator(s): Schaff, Philip (1819-1893) Print Basis: Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1951 Rights: Public Domain CCEL Subjects: All; Reference LC Call no: BR95 LC Subjects: Christianity __________________________________________________________________ THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE Editor-in-Chief SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D. Editor-in-Chief of Supplementary Volumes LEFFERTS A. LOETSCHER, Ph.D., D.D. Associate Professor of Church History Princeton Theological Seminary BAKER BOOK HOUSE GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE EMBRACING BIBLICAL, HISTORICAL, DOCTRINAL, AND PRACTICAL THEOLOGY AND BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL, AND ECCLESIASTICAL BIOGRAPHY FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY Based on the Third Edition of the Realencyklopädie Founded by J. J. Herzog, and Edited by Albert Hauck PREPARED BY MORE THAN SIX HUNDRED SCHOLARS AND SPECIALISTS UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D. (Editor-in-Chief) WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF CHARLES COLEBROOK SHERMAN AND GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, M.A. (Associate Editors) AND THE FOLLOWING DEPARTMENT EDITORS CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D. (Department of Systematic Theology) HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D. (Department of Minor Denominations) JOHN THOMAS CREAGH, D.D. (Department of Liturgics and Religious Orders) (VOL. I.) JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D. (Department of Liturgics and Religious Orders) (VOLS. II. TO XII.) JAMES FREDERIC McCURDY, PH.D., LL.D. (Department of the Old Testament) HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D. (Department of the New Testament) ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D. (Department of Church History) FRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, F.S.A. (Department of Pronunciation and Typography) __________________________________________________________________ VOLUME I AACHEN-BASILIANS __________________________________________________________________ BAKER BOOK HOUSE GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN 1951 EXCLUSIVE AMERICAN PUBLICATION RIGHTS SECURED BY BAKER BOOK HOUSE FROM FUNK AND WAGNALLS 1949 LITHOPRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA CUSHING-MALLOY, INC., ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN __________________________________________________________________ EDITORS __________________________________________________________________ SAMUEL MACAULEY JACKSON, D.D., LL.D. (Editor-in-Chief.) Professor of Church History, New York University. ASSOCIATE EDITORS CHARLES COLEBROOK SHERMAN Editor in Biblical Criticism and Theology on "The New International Encyclopedia," New York. GEORGE WILLLAM GILMORE, M.A. New York, Formerly Professor of Biblical History and Lecturer on Comparative Religion, Bangor Theological Seminary. DEPARTMENT EDITORS, VOLUME I CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D. (Department of Systematic Theology.) Professor of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological Seminary. HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D. (Department of Minor Denominations.) One of the Corresponding Secretaries of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church, New York. JOHN THOMAS CREAGH, D.D. (Department of Liturgies and Religious Orders.) Professor of Canon Law, Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C. HUBERT EVANS, Ph.D. (Office Editor.) Member of the Editorial Staff of the Encyclopædia Britannica, Company, New York City. JAMES FREDERICK McCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D. (Department of the Old Testament.) Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto. HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D. (Department of the New Testament.) Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass. ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D. (Department of Church History.) Professor of Church History, Baylor Theological Seminary (Baylor University), Waco, Tex. FRANK HORACE VIZRETELLY, F.S.A. (Department of Pronunciation and Typography.) Managing Editor of the Standard Dictionary, etc., New York City. __________________________________________________________________ CONTRIBUTORS AND COLLABORATORS, VOLUME I HANS ACHELIS, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Halle. SAMUEL JAMES ANDREWS (), Late Pastor of the Catholic Apostolic Church, Hartford, Conn. CARL FRANKLIN ARNOLD, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, Evangelical Theological Faculty, University of Breslau. CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D., Professor Of Systematic Theology, Chicago Theological Seminary. KARL BENRATH, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Königsberg. IMMANUEL GUSTAV ADOLF BENZINGER, Ph.D., Th.Lic., Formerly Privat-docent in Old Testament Theology, University of Berlin. Member of the Executive Committee of the German Society for the Exploration of Palestine, Jerusalem. CARL BERTHEAU, Th.D., Pastor of St. Michael's Church and President of the Society for the Inner Mission, Hamburg. EDWIN MUNSELL BLISS, D.D., Editor of the Encyclopedia of Missions, etc., Washington, D. C. EDUARD BOEHMER (), Ph.D., Th.D., Formerly Professor of Romance Languages, Universities of Halle and Strasburg. AMY GASTON BONET-MAURY, D.D., LL.D, Professor of Church History, Independent School of Divinity, Paris. GOTTLIEB NATHANAEL BONWETSCH, Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Göttingen. FRIEDRICH BOSSE, Ph.D., Th.Lic., Professor of the New Testament and Church History, University of Greifswald. GUSTAV BOSSERT, Ph.D., Th.D., Formerly Pastor at Nabery near Kirchheim, Württemberg. JOHANN FRANZ WILHELM BOUSSET, Th.D., Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Göttingen. JOHANNES FRIEDRICH THEODOR BRIEGER, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Leipsic. CHARLES AUGUSTUS BRIGGS, D.D., D.Litt. (Oxon.), Professor of Theological Encyclopedia and Symbolics, Union Theological Seminary, New York. CARL VON BUCHRUCKER, (), Th.D., Late Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Munich. FRANTS PEDER WILLIAM BUHL, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Oriental Languages, University of Copenhagen. WALTER CASPARI, Ph.D., Th.Lic., University Preacher and Professor of Practical Theology, Pedagogics, and Didactics, University of Erlangen. ALEXIS IRENEE DU PONT COLEMAN, M.A. Instructor of English, College of the City of New York. JOHN THOMAS CREAGH, D.D., Professor of Canon Law, Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C. AUGUST HERMANN CREMER (), Th.D., Late Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Greifswald. GUSTAF HERMAN DALMAN, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic, and President of the German Evangelical Archeological Institute, Jerusalem. SAMUEL MARTIN DEUTSCH, Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Berlin. FRANZ WILHELH DIBELIUS, Ph.D., Th.D., Supreme Consistorial Councilor, City Superintendent, and Pastor of the Church of the Cross, Dresden. PAUL GOTTFRIED DREWS, Th.D., Professor of Practical Theology, University of Giessen. WILHELIM DREXLER, Ph.D., Librarian, University of Greifswald. HEINRICH DUNCKER (), Th.D., Late Consistorial Councilor, Dessau. HENRY OTIS DWIGHT, LL.D., Recording Secretary of the American Bible Society, New York. DAVID ERDMANN (), Th.D., Formerly General Superintendent and Honorary Professor of Church History, Evangelical Theological Faculty, University of Breslau. HERMANN AUGUST PAUL EWALD, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Dogmatics and New Testament Exegesis, University of Erlangen. PAUL FEINE, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Berlin. BARR FERRKE, Writer on Art and Architecture, New York City. JOHANNES FICKER, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, Evangelical Theological Faculty, University of Strasburg. THEODOR FORESTER (), Th.D., Late Professor of Church History, University of Halle. NORMAN FOX (), D.D., Late Baptist Clergyman and Author, Morristown, N. J. ALBERT FREYBE, Ph.D., Th.D., Gymnasial Professor, Parchim, Mecklenburg. EMIL ALBERT FRIEDBERG, Dr.Jur., Professor of Ecclesiastical, Public, and German Law, University of Leipsic. HEINRICH GELZER (), Ph.D. Late Professor of Classical Philology and Ancient History, University of Jena. GEORGE WILLIAIM GILMORE, M.A., Formerly Lecturer on comparative Religion, Bangor Theological Seminary. WALTER GOETZ, Ph.D., Professor of History, University of Tübingen. WILHELM GOETZ, Ph.D., Honorary Professor of Geography, Technical School, and Professor, Military Academy, Munich. JOHANNES FRIEDRICH GOTTSCHICK (), Th.D., Late Professor of New Testament Exegesis, Ethics, and Practical Theology, Evangelical Theological Faculty, University of Tübingen. HERMANN GUTHE, Th.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic. HEINRICH HAHN, Ph.D., Formerly Professor of History and German in the Luisenstadt Real-Gymnasium, Berlin. ADOLF HARNACK, Ph.D., M.D., Dr.Jur., Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Berlin, and General Director of the Royal Library, Berlin. ALBERT HAUCK, Ph.D., Dr.Jur., Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Leipsic; Editor of the Realencyklopädie, Founded by J. J. Herzog. HERMAN HAUPT, Ph.D., Professor, and Director of the University Library, Giessen. RICHARD HAUSMANN, Hist.D., Formerly Professor of History, Dorpat, Russia. JOHANNES HAUSSLEITER, Ph.D., Th.D., Consistorial Councilor, Professor of New Testament Theology and Exegesis, University of Greifswald. CARL FRIEDRICH GEORG HEINRICI, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic. MAX HEROLD, Th.D., Dean, Neustadt-on-the-Aisch, Bavaria, Editor of Siona. PAUL HINSCHIUS, (), Dr.Jur., Late Professor of Ecclesiastical Law, University of Berlin. HERMANN WILHELM HEINRICH HOELSCHER, Th.D., Pastor of the Church of St. Nicholas, Leipsic, Editor of the Allgemeine evangelisch-lutherische Kirchenseitung and of the Theologisches Literaturblatt. RUDOLF HUGO HOFMANN, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Homiletics and Liturgies, University of Leipsic. ALFRED JEREMIAS, Ph.D., Th.Lic., Pastor of the LutherChurch and Privat-docent for the History of Religion and the Old Testament in the University, Leipsic. FRIEDRICH WILHELM FERDINAND KATTENBUSCH, Th.D., Professor of Dogmatics, University of Halle. PETER GUSTAV KAWERAU, Th.D., Consistorial Councilor, University Preacher, and Professor of Practical Theology, Evangelical Theological Faculty, University of Breslau. HANS KESSLER, Th.D., Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Berlin. RUDOLF KITTEL, Ph.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Leipsic. HEINRICH AUGUST KLOSTERMANN, Th.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Kiel. AUGUST KOEHLER (), Ph.D., Th.D., Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Erlangen. FRIEDRICH EDUARD KOENIG, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, Evangelical Theological Faculty, University of Bonn. THEODOR FRIEDRICH HERMANN KOLDE, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Erlangen. HERMANN GUSTAV EDUARD KRUEGER, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Giessen. JOHANNES WILHELM KUNZE, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Systematic and Practical Theology, University of Greifswald. EARL LUDWIG LEIMBACH (), Ph.D., Th.D., Late Provincial Councilor for Schools, Hanover. LUDWIG LEMME, Th.D., Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Heidelberg. EDUARD LEMMP, Ph.D., Chief Inspector of the Royal Orphan Asylum, Stuttgart. FRIEDRICH LEZIUS, Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Königsberg. BRUNO LINDNER, Ph.D., Professor of Aryan Languages, University of Leipsic. FRIEDRICH LIST (), Ph.D., Late Studiendirektor, Munich. GEORG LOESCHE, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, Evangelical Theological Faculty, Vienna. FRIEDRICH ARMIN LOOFS, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Halle. WILHELM LOTZ, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Erlangen. ANDERS HEREZAN LUNDSTROEM, Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Upsala, Sweden. JAMES FREDERICK MCCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Toronto. GEORGE DUNCAN MATHEWS, D.D., Secretary of the Alliance of the Reformed Churches, London. PHILIPP MEYER, Th.D., Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Member of the Royal Consistory, Hanover. CARL THEODOR MIRBT, Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Marburg. ERNST FRIEDRICH KARL MUELLER, Th.D., Professor of Reformed Theology, University of Erlangen. GEORG MUELLER, Ph.D., Th.D., Councilor for Schools, Leipsic. NIKOLAUS MUELLER, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Christian Archeology, University of Berlin. HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D., Professor of the Literature and Interpretation of the New Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass. CHRISTOF EBERHARD NESTLE, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor in the Theological Seminary (Teacher of Hebrew, New Testament Greek, and Religion), Maulbronn, Württemberg. CARL NEUMANN, Ph.D., Professor of the History of Art, University of Kiel. ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Church History, Baylor Theological Seminary (Baylor University), Waco, Texas. JULIUS NEY, Th.D., Supreme Consistorial Councilor, Speyer, Bavaria. FREDERIK CHRISTIAN NIELSEN (), Th.D., Late Bishop of Aalborg, Denmark. HANS CONRAD VON ORELLI, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and History of Religion, University of Basel. CHARLES PFENDER Pastor of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, Parish of St. Paul, Paris. WILLIAM HENRY PHELEY, Ph.D., General Secretary of the Brotherhood of Andrew and Philip, Philadelphia. BERNHARD PICK, Ph.D., D.D., Pastor of the First German Evangelical Lutheran St. John's Church, Newark, N. J. WILLIAM PRICE, Formerly Instructor in French, Yale College and Sheffield Scientific School, New Haven, Conn. TRAUGOTT OTTO RADLACH, Pastor at Gatersleben, Prussian Saxony. GEORG CHRISTIAN RIETSCHEL, Th.D., University Preacher and Professor of Practical Theology, University of Leipsic. HENDRIK CORNELIS ROGGE (), Th.D., Late Professor of History, University of Amsterdam. HUGO SACHSSE, Ph.D., Th.Lic., Dr.Jur., Professor of Ecclesiastical Law, University of Rostock. KARL RUDOLF SAHRE, Professor for Religious Instruction and Hebrew, Holy Cross Gymnasium, Dresden. DAVID SCHLEY SCHAFF, D.D., Professor of Church History, Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa. PHILIP SCHAFF (), D.D., LL.D., Late Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. KARL SCHMIDT, Th.D., Pastor at Goldberg, Mecklenburg. EMIL SCHUERER, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Göttingen. VICTOR SCHULTZE, Th.D., Professor of Church History and Christian Archeology, University of Greifswald. LUDWIG THEODOR SCHULZE, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Systematic Theology. University of Rostock. REINHOLD SEEBERG, Th.D., Professor of Systematic Theology, University of Berlin. EMIL SEHLING, Dr.Jur., Professor of Ecclesiastical and Commercial Law, University of Erlangen. FRIEDRICH ANTON EMIL SIEFFERT Ph.D., Professor of Dogmatics and New Testament Exegesis, Evangelical Theological Faculty, University of Bonn. RUDOLF STAEHELIN (), Th.D., Late Professor of Church History, University of Basel. GEORG STEINDORFF, Ph.D., Professor of Egyptology, University of Leipsic. EMIL ELIAS STEINMEYER, Ph.D., Privy Councilor, Professor of the German Language and Literature, University of Erlangen. ALFRED STOECKIUS, Ph.D., Astor Library, New York City. PAUL TSCHACKERT, Ph.D., Th.D., Professor of Church History, University of Göttingen. WILHELM VOLCK (), Ph.D., Th.D., Late Professor of Old Testament Exegesis, University of Rostock. BENJAMIN BRECKINRIDGE WARFIELD, D.D., LL.D., Professor of Didactic and Polemical Theology, Princeton Theological Seminary. JOHANNES WEISS, Th.D., Professor of New Testament Exegesis, University of Marburg. AUGUST WILHELM ERNST WERNER, Th.D., Pastor Primarius, Guben, Prussia. EDUARD VON WOELFFLIN, Ph.D., Professor of Classical Philology, University of Munich. THEODOR ZAHN, Th.D., Litt.D., Professor of New Testament Exegesis and Introduction, University of Erlangen. OTTO ZOECKLER (), Ph.D., Th.D., Late Professor of Church History and Apologetics, University of Greifswald. __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ PREFACE __________________________________________________________________ This encyclopedia presents in a condensed and modified form that great body of Protestant learning called the Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche, edited by Professor Albert Hauck, Ph.D., D.Th., D.Jur., the famous church historian of Germany. The German work is the third edition of that religious encyclopedia which was originally edited by the late Professor Johann Jakob Herzog and bore his name popularly as a convenient short title. The late Professor Philip Schaff was requested by his intimate friend Dr. Herzog to adapt the encyclopedia to the American public and this he did. To this combination of German and American scholarship the publishers gave the happy title of The Schaff-Herzog Encyclopædia of Religious Knowledge. This name has been familiar to thousands of the religious public on both sides of the sea for the past twenty-five years and so has been preserved as the title of this publication, with the prefix "New." The history of this encyclopedia up to the present is this: In December, 1853, there appeared at Gotha the first part of the Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche, which was the Protestant reply to the challenge of the Roman Catholic scholars engaged upon the Kirchenlexikon oder Encyklopädie der katholischen Theologie und ihrer Hülfswissenschaften, which had been appearing at Freiburg im Breisgau since 1846. The credit for suggesting the latter work must be given to Benjamin Herder (1818-88), one of the leading publishers of Germany. Its editors were Heinrich Joseph Wetzer (1801-53), professor of Oriental philology in the University of Freiburg im Breisgau, a layman, and Benedict Welte (1805-85), a priest and professor of theology in the University of Tübingen. The proposition to do as much for Protestant theology and research was mooted by a company of Protestant theologians, and Matthias Schneckenburger (1804-18), professor of theology in Bern, had been chosen editor of the projected work. But the political troubles of 1848 prevented the carrying out of the scheme and the death of Schneckenburger that year made it necessary to find another leader. At this juncture Friedrich August Tholuck (1799-1877), professor of theology in Halle, where Johann Jakob Herzog was professor from 1847 to 1854, was consulted and he named his colleague. It was an ideal choice, as Professor Herzog was a competent scholar, a friend of progress in theology, moderate in his views, and a persona grata to all parties among the Protestants. The publisher of the Protestant encyclopedia was Christian Friedrich Adolf Rost (1790-1856), who was carrying on the business of Johann Conrad Hinrichs, and under that name. Both the Roman Catholic and Protestant religious encyclopedias were conspicuous successes and came to be called popularly, by the names of their editors, "Wetzer and Welte" and "Herzog" respectively. The former was finished in 1856 in twelve volumes, followed by an index volume in 1860; the latter in 1868 in twenty-two volumes including the index. In December, 1877, the Herders entrusted a new edition of "Wetzer and Welte" to Joseph Hergenröther (1824-80), at that time a professor of theology in Munich. On his elevation to the cardinalate in 1879 he transferred his editorial duties to Franz Philipp Kaulen (1827-1907), Roman Catholic professor of theology in Bonn, and under him the new edition was finished in 1901 in twelve volumes, each one much larger than those of the first edition. In September, 1903, the index volume appeared. In 1877 the first volume of the second edition of "Herzog" appeared, edited by Professor Herzog with the assistance of his colleague in the theological faculty in Erlangen, Gustav Leopold Plitt (1836-80). On Plitt's death Herzog called in another colleague, Albert Hauck (1845-), the professor of church history, who survived him and brought the work to its triumphant close in 1888 in eighteen volumes, including the index. In the spring of 1896 appeared the first part of the third edition of "Herzog" with Hauck, who meanwhile had gone to Leipsic as professor of church history, as sole editor. It is upon this third edition that the present work is based. The idea of translating "Herzog" in a slightly condensed form occurred to John Henry Augustus Bomberger (1817-90), a minister of the German Reformed Church, and then president of Ursinus College, Collegeville, Pa., and in 1856 he brought out in Philadelphia the first volume, whose title-page reads thus: The Protestant Theological and Ecclesiastical Encyclopedia: Being a Condensed Translation of Herzog's Real Encyclopedia. With Additions from Other Sources. By Rev. J. H. A. Bomberger, D.D., Assisted by Distinguished Theologians of Various Denominations. Vol. I. Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston, 1856. In this work he associated with himself twelve persons, all but one ministers. In 1860 he issued the second volume. But the Civil War breaking out the next year put a stop to so costly an enterprise and it was never resumed. The first volume included the article "Concubinage," the second "Josiah." It had been issued in numbers, of which the last was the twelfth. In 1877 Professor Philip Schaff (1819-93) was asked by Dr. Herzog himself to undertake an English reproduction of the second edition of his encyclopedia, and this work was fairly begun when, in the autumn of 1880, Clemens Petersen and Samuel Macauley Jackson were engaged to work daily on it in Dr. Schaff's study in the Bible House, New York City. The next year Dr. Schaff's son, the Rev. David Schley Schaff, now professor of church history in the Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa., joined the staff. The original publishers were S. S. Scranton & Company, Hartford, Conn., but a change was made before the issue of the first volume and the encyclopedia was issued by Funk & Wagnalls. The title-page read thus: A Religious Encyclopædia: or Dictionary of Biblical, Historical, Doctrinal, and Practical Theology. Based on the Real-Encyklopädie of Herzog, Plitt, and Hauck. Edited by Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D., Professor in the Union Theological Seminary, New York. Associate editors: Rev. Samuel M. Jackson, M. A., and Rev. D. S. Schaff. Volume I. New York: Funk & Wagnalls, Publishers, 10 and 18 Dey Street. The first volume was issued Wednesday, November 1, 1882, the second Thursday, March 1, 1883, and the third Tuesday, March 4, 1884. Volume I. had pp. xix. 1-847; volume II. pp. xvii. 848-1714; and volume III. pp. xix. 1715-2631. In November, 1886, a revised edition was issued and at the same time the Encyclopedia of Living Divines and Christian Workers of All Denominations in Europe and America, Being a Supplement to Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. Edited by Rev. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D., and Rev. Samuel Macauley Jackson, M. A. New York: Funk & Wagnalls, Publishers, 18 and 20 Astor Place, 1887. In 1891 the third edition of the encyclopedia was issued and with it was incorporated the Encyclopedia of Living Divines, with an appendix, largely the work of Rev. George William Gilmore, bringing the biographical and literary notices down to December, 1890. The entire work was repaged sufficiently to make it one of four volumes of about equal size, and it is this four-volume edition which is known to the public as the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia, the volumes being respectively of pp. xlviii. 679 and four pages unnumbered; 680-1378; 1379-2086; iv. 2087-2629, viii. 296. As the German work at its base was overtaken by the time "S" had been reached, the "Schaff-Herzog" from that letter on was based on the first edition of "Herzog." Therefore much of its matter is now very old. Yet it has been a useful work, and in 1903 its publishers determined on a new edition based on the third edition of "Herzog" which had been appearing since 1896. But inasmuch as there was a space of ten years between the beginnings of the two works, it has been necessary to bring the matter from the German down to date. This end has been accomplished by two courses: first by securing from the German contributors to "Herzog" condensations of their contributions, in which way matter contributed to the German work has in many instances been brought down to date, and second by calling on department editors for supplementary matter. As appears from what has been said above, this encyclopedia is not entirely anew work. It is really an old work reconstructed. Its list of titles is largely the same and it follows the same general plan as in the old work. The points of identity are: (1) that at its base lies the Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie and Kirche, once associated with the name of Herzog, now with the name of Albert Hauck, professor of church history in the University of Leipsic, and the author of the authoritative history of the Church in Germany; (2) that it gives in condensed form the information in that work, and takes such matter directly from the German work in most instances, although occasionally while the topic is the same the treatment is independent of the German contributor's; (3) that it has much matter contributed by the editorial staff and specially secured contributors; (4) that in Biblical matters it limits its titles to those of the German base, so that it should not be considered as a Bible dictionary, although the Biblical department comprehends the principal articles of such a dictionary. The points of dissimilarity are these: (1) It contains much matter furnished directly by those contributors to the German work who have kindly consented to condense their articles and bring them within prescribed limits. These limits have often been narrow, but in no other way was it possible to utilize the German matter. (2) It contains hundreds of sketches of living persons derived in almost every instance from matter furnished by themselves. In writing these sketches much help has been received, principally in the suggestion of names, from the English and American Who's Who and from the German Wer ist's (which is a similar work for Germany), and we desire to acknowledge our indebtedness with thanks. But comparison between the sketches in this book and those given of the same individual in the books referred to will reveal many differences and be so many proofs of the extensive correspondence carried on to secure the given facts. Every person sketched herein, with almost no exception, has been sent a blank for biographical data. Some thought to save themselves the trouble of filling out the blank by referring to a dictionary of living persons, but it has generally turned out that the requirements of this blank were not met by the book referred to and it has been necessary to write to the subject, and frequently more than once, before the desired information could be secured., (3) The matter in proof has been sent to persons specially chosen for eminence in their respective departments. These departments with the names of those in charge of them are: Systematic Theology, Rev. CLARENCE AUGUSTINE BECKWITH, D.D., professor of systematic theology, Chicago Theological Seminary; Minor Denominations, Rev. HENRY KING CARROLL, LL.D., one of the corresponding secretaries of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Methodist Episcopal Church, New York City; Liturgies and Religious Orders, in the first volume, Rev. JOHN THOMAS CREAGH, D.D., professor of canon law, Catholic University of America, Washington, D. C., in subsequent volumes, Very Rev. JAMES FRANCIS DRISCOLL, D.D., president of St. Joseph's Seminary, Yonkers, N. Y.; the Old Testament, Rev. JAMES FREDERICK MCCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D., professor of Oriental languages, University College, Toronto; the New Testament, Rev. HENRY SYLVESTER NASH, D.D., professor of the literature and interpretation of the New Testament, Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass.; Church History, Rev. ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, D.D., LL.D., professor of church history, Baylor Theological Seminary (Baylor University), Waco, Texas. Besides reading the proofs they were requested to make such additions as would not only bring them up to date but represent the distinctive results of British and American Scholarship. (4) A much more thorough bibliography is furnished. The attempt has been made to give sources so that students may pursue a subject to its roots; second, to supply the best literature in whatever language it occurs; third, to supply references in English for those who read only that language. (5) All articles based on German originals have been sent in proof to the writers of the original German articles when these writers were still living. Some of them had furnished the articles and they had merely been translated, but in the great majority of cases the German authors had not given that cooperation; not a few, however, have kindly read our condensations and made corrections and additions. For this cooperation thanks are due. We here mention with gratitude the permission given by the publisher of the Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche, Mr. HEINRICH ROST, the head of the great publishing house of J. C. HINRICHS of Leipsic, and by the editor of its third edition, Professor ALBERT HAUCK, Ph.D., D.Th., D.Jur., of the University of Leipsic, to use its contents in our discretion. Dr. Hauck has done far more than give permission. He has manifested a kindly interest in our work, has revised the condensations of his articles, and facilitated our efforts to secure from his contributors advance articles. This helpfulness is much appreciated, and we would fain give it prominent recognition. Rev. DAVID SCHLEY SCHAFF, D.D., who holds the chair of church history in the Western Theological Seminary, Allegheny, Pa., whose father was the founder of this work and who was himself one of its original associate editors, felt unable on account of other duties to assume any editorial responsibility for the present work, as he had been asked to do by the publishers when the new edition was determined on, but he entered heartily into the arrangement whereby the sole responsibility of general editor should be lodged with his former associate editor, and has cooperated by bringing down to date almost all the articles which he and his father contributed to the first edition. The labor of coordinating the material sent in by the many persons who have cooperated to bring out this work has fallen upon the managing editor, CHARLES COLEBROOK SHERMAN, who has discharged his difficult duties with conscientious fidelity and marked ability. The bibliography, which is probably the greatest novelty of this encyclopedia and is a feature certain to be greatly appreciated, has been prepared by Professor GEORGE WILLIAM GILMORE, late of Bangor Theological Seminary, and the author of Hurst's Literature of Theology. The work of condensing and translating the articles from the contributors to the Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie and Kirche has been done by BERNHARD PICK, Ph.D., D.D., Lutheran pastor, Newark, N. J.; ALEXIS IRÉNÉE DU PONT COLEMAN, M.A. of Oxford University, instructor in English in the College of the City of New York; ALFRED STOECKIUS, Ph.D., of the Astor Library; WILLIAM PRICE; and HUBERT EVANS, Ph.D. of Leipsic. The pronunciations have been supplied by FRANK HORACE VIZETELLY, F.S.A., managing editor of the Standard Dictionary. When the contributors to the Realencyklopädie have chosen not to condense their articles themselves, but have preferred that this work should be done by the editors of the New Schaff-Herzog, the fact is indicated by the use of parentheses enclosing the signature. Editorial addition's or changes in the body of signed articles for which the contributors should not be held responsible are indicated by brackets. A double signature indicates that an article originally prepared by the contributor whose name appears first (in parentheses) has been revised by the contributor whose name follows. The cross () following the name of a contributor indicates that he is dead. September 15, 1907. THE EDITOR. __________________________________________________________________ CONCERNING BIBLIOGRAPHY. For purposes of research and definite information the student is constantly under the necessity of discovering not only lists of works on a given subject, but also initials or full names of authors and place and date of publication and often the exact form of the title of a book inaccurately or partially known. To furnish this information the work which will prove useful beyond all others is the British Museum Catalogue, which with its Supplement records the books received down to 1900; accessions beyond this date are also recorded in supplementary issues. Especially valuable to the theological student are the four parts devoted to the Bibles and Bible-works in the British Museum, though the large number of entries makes it hard to consult these parts. Some help is given by the tables of arrangement. A Subject Index for 1881-1905, ed. G. K. Fortescue, 4 vols., London, 1902-06, makes available a very considerable part of the late literature upon all subjects. Next to this, if indeed not equally valuable so far as it is finished, is the exhaustive work doing for the French National Library and for publications in French what the work just named does for the British. This is the Catalogue général . . . de la Bibiliotheque Nationale, now in course of publication, Paris, 1897 sqq., of which volume xxiv., the last received, carries the list through "Catzius." The value of these two publications will be more accurately estimated when it is recalled that the two institutions are stated repositories for copyrighted books in the two countries respectively. An important feature of the first volume of the French catalogue is a helpful account of previous catalogues of the French National Library. The English work is in folio, the French in octavo. Perhaps the next best general work is that of J. C. Brunet, Manuel du libraire, 3 vols., Paris, 1810, superseded by the 5th ed., 6 vols., 1860-65, with Supplement, 2 vols., 1878-80. After these two works come in point of usefulness what may be called the national catalogues, recording the books published in Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy, and America. For Germany the work was begun in the Allgemeines Bücher-Lexicon, by W. Heinsius, reedited and enlarged by O. A. Schulz, then by F. A. Schiller, covering the period 1700-1851 in 11 volumes, Leipsic, 1812-54, for the earlier period incomplete. This was continued by Hinrichs' Bücher-Katalog, covering the years 1851-65 in one volume (1875), and from that time to the present by the Fünfjähriger Bücher-Katalog. Half-yearly volumes are published which are superseded in course by the five-year volumes. These were accompanied by a Repertorium up to 1885, which arranged the entries topically. From 1883 on the Repertorium was superseded by a Schlagwort-Katalog, by Georg and L. Ost, Hanover, 1889-1904 (now complete down to 1902), serving as an index to the Hinrichs, and arranging the catch-words alphabetically. For publications in French there is the Catalogue général de la librairie française, covering the period 1840-99, 15 vols., Paris, 1867-1904, begun by O. Lorenz and continued by D. Jordell, with a Table des matieres or index published at irregular intervals, but exceedingly full and usable. The Table systématique de la bibliographie de la France is an annual list of copyrighted books classified according to subjects, published in Paris. For British publications the London Catalogue, London, 1846, now very hard to obtain, carries the list of books from 1800 to 1846 with Index to the same. This was continued by the English Catalogue, now complete down to 1905, 7 vols., London, 1864-1905. The three volumes for 1890-1905 are arranged by authors and subjects in one alphabet. For the period 1837-89 there is an Index of Subjects, 4 vols., London, 1858-93. A Yearly Catalogue is issued, which, like the French annuals and German semiannuals, is superseded by the volume covering a series of years. For modern Italian works the authoritative source is the Catalogo generale della libreria Italians, 1847-99, compilato dal Prof. Attilio Pagliaini, 3 vols., Milan, 1901-05, a work singularly complete for the period it covers. For American publications the period 1820-71 is inadequately covered by the Bibliotheca Americana, by O. A. Roorbach to 1861, and then by J. Kelly, a set of books rarely on the market. The American Catalogue continues this to the end of 1905 in 6 vols. folio, 2 vols. roy. 8vo, New York, 1880-1906. This was begun by F. Leypoldt and is continued by the Publishers' Weekly. In this series a Yearly Catalogue is issued, superseded like the other annuals by the larger volume. The whole is being supplemented by Charles Evans with the American Bibliography, a Chronological Dictionary of All . . . Publications . . ., 1689-1820. Of this magnificent work, vols. i.-iv. are issued, Chicago, 1903-07, bringing the titles down to 1773. For earlier books a valuable set of volumes is L. Hain, Repertorium bibliographicum, 2 vols. in 4 parts and an Index, Stuttgart, 1826-91, giving a list of books printed from the invention of printing to 1500. To this W. A. Copinger has added a Supplement in 2 vols., 3 parts, London, 1895-1902, and Dietrich Reichling, Appendices, in course of preparation and publication, containing corrections and additions, Munich, 1905 sqq. Valuable as selected and classified lists of general literature, including theology, are Sonnenschein's Best Books and Reader's Guide, London, 1891-95. The foregoing are all in the field of general literature and are not specifically theological. Of specifically Theological Bibliographies, giving lists of literature in the various departments of the science, the older ones have principally a historic value. Some of the best are: J. G. Walch, Bibliotheca theologica selecta, 4 vols., Jena, 1757-65, arranged topically with an index of authors; G. B. Winer, Handbuch der theologischen Litteratur, 3d ed., 3 vols., Leipsic, 1837-42 (gives little literature in English); E. A. Zuchold, Bibliotheca theologica, 2 vols., Göttingen, 1864 (an alphabetical arrangement by authors of books in German issued 1830-62); W. Orme, Bibliotheca theologica, London, 1824 (contains critical notes). One of the older books, often referred to for its lists of editions of Scripture, is J. Le Long, Bibliotheca sacra, 2 vols., Paris, 1709, enlarged by A. G. Masch, 5 vols., Halle, 1778-90. T. H. Horne added to his Introduction a rich bibliography of the works issued before and in his time (also printed separately), London, 1839, which, however, is not found in editions of the Introduction later than that of 1846. An excellent work is that by James Darling, Cyclopædia Bibliographica; a Library Manual of Theological and General Literature, London, 1854, with supplementary volume, 1859, particularly useful as giving the contents of series and even of volumes. A modern production, noting only works in English, is J. F. Hurst, Literature of Theology, New York, 1896, fairly complete up to its date, arranged according to the divisions in Theology and in convenient smaller rubrics, with very full indexes. Unfortunately, it needs supplementing by the literature subsequent to 1895. It is to be hoped that the publishers will see their way to add a supplement, containing the later literature. For Roman Catholic theology consult D. Gla, Systematisch geordnetes Repertorium der katholisch-theologischen Litteratur, Paderborn, 1894. W. T. Lowndes, Bibliographer's Manual, 4 vols., London, 1834, new edition by Henry G. Bohn, 1857-64, while not exclusively theological, deals largely with curious theological books and is useful for the annotations. Among the most useful guides to theological literature are the works on Introduction to Theology or on Theological Encyclopedia and Methodology, most of which give classified lists of literature. Schleiermacher's Kurze Darstellung des theologischen Studiums, Berlin, 1811, 1830, was followed by K. R. Hagenbach, Encyklopädie and Methodologie, Leipsic, 1833, revised by M. Reischle, 1889. This last, though not in its latest form, was practically reproduced by G. R. Crooks and J. F. Hurst, New York, 1884, rev. ed., 1894, with copious lists of literature, English and American, added. Better even than this is A. Cave, Introduction to Theology, 2d ed., Edinburgh, 1896, in which the lists of literature are especially valuable, though the lapse of a decade since the publication makes a new edition desirable. Of very high value for its citation of literature, including Continental, English, and American, is L. Emery, Introduction à l'étude de la théologie protestante, Paris, 1904. In the way of Biblical and Theological Dictionaries and Encyclopedias the past decade has witnessed great progress. The two great Bible Dictionaries, superseding for English readers all others, are A Dictionary of the Bible, by J. Hastings and J. A. Selbie, 4 vols. and extra volume, Edinburgh and New York, 1898-1904 (comprehensive and fully up to date in the Old Testament subjects, but conservative and often timid in dealing with the New Testament), and Encyclopædia Biblica, by T. K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, 4 vols., London and New York, 1899-1903 (also comprehensive, much more "advanced" in the Old Testament and admitting representation to the "Dutch School" in the New Testament parts, but handicapped by the Jerahmeel theory of Prof. Cheyne). F. Vigouroux, Dictionnaire de la Bible, Paris, 1891 sqq., still in course of publication, has reached "Palestine" with part xxix., and is an excellent specimen of the conservative type of French Biblical scholarship. In Christian Archeology the work of W. Smith and S. Cheetham, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, 2 vols., London, 1875-80, is still valuable, and there is no later work in English to take its place. Of high value is F. X. Kraus, Real-Encyklopädie der christlichen Alterthümer, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1881-86. The best work, which must supersede all others because of its extraordinary completeness and fulness, but which has been only recently begun and must take many years to complete under its present plan, is F. Cabrol, Dictionnaire d'archéiologie chrétienne et de liturgie, Paris, 1903 sqq. (parts i.-xii. are out, and bring the reader down to "Baptême"). In a different field, and worthy of high praise, is W. Smith and H. Wace, Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects, and Doctrines, 4 vols., London 1877-87, representing the best English scholarship of its day, and, from the nature of its contents, not easily to be superseded. A help to this, particularly in the matter of early Christian writers, is W. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 3 vols., new edition, London, 1890. In the general field of Historical and Doctrinal Theology must be mentioned on the Roman Catholic side the Kirchenlexikon of Wetzer and Welte, 2d ed., begun by Cardinal Hergenröther, continued by F. Kaulen, 12 vols. and Register, Freiburg, 1880-1903. This work must be commended for its accurate scholarship, its admirable regard for proportion, and for the large range of subjects it treats with fairness and with only a suspicion of a tendency toward ultramontanism. Briefer is the Handlexikon der katholischen Theologie, begun by J. Schäfler (continued by J. Sax), 4 vols., Regensburg, 1880-1900. The new Kirchliches Handlexikon of M. Buchberger, Munich, 1904-06 (in progress), is not particularly valuable. The evangelical side of German scholarship is represented by the great work of J. J. Herzog, Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie and Kirche, 3d ed., revised under A. Hauck, Leipsic, 1896 sqq., 18 vols. issued to date. This is the great storehouse of German Protestant theology and the basis of the present work. The most ambitious work of American scholarship is J. McClintock and J. Strong, Cyclopædia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature, 10 vols., New York, 1867-1881, with two supplementary volumes, 1884-86 (claims to have over 50,000 titles; necessarily it is now in need of revision). Other works, each having its distinctive field, are: W. F. Hook, A Church Dictionary, 8th ed., London, 1859, reprinted Philadelphia, 1854; J. Eadie, The Ecclesiastical Cyclopedia, ib., 1861; J. H. Blunt, Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theology, 2d ed:, ib., 1872; idem, Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, and Schools of Thought, ib., 1891 (both of considerable worth, representing "High Anglicanism"); W. E. Addis and T. Arnold, A Catholic Dictionary, London and New York, 6th ed., 1903; J. Hamburger, Real-Encyklopädie des Judenthums, 3 vols., 3d ed., Leipsic, 1891-1901 (deals with both Biblical and Talmudic subjects; "by a Jew for Jews"); The Jewish Encyclopedia, published under the direction of an editorial board of which I. K. Funk was chairman and Isidore Singer managing editor, 12 vols., New York, 1901-06; F. Lichtenberger, Encyclopédie des sciences religieuses, 13 vols., Paris, 1877-82 (for French Protestants). T. P. Hugh, Dictionary of Islam, London, 1885, is the only encyclopedic work on the subject, but defective and unreliable. In Hymnology there are: H. A. Daniel, Thesaurus hymnologicus, i. Latin hymns, ii. Latin sequences, iii. Greek hymns, iv.-v. supplement to vols. i.-ii., Leipsic, 1841-55 (a storehouse of material often inaccessible elsewhere, but ill digested, inaccurate, and perplexing to consult); E. E. Koch, Geschichte des Kirchenliedes and Kirchengesangs der christlichen . . . Kirche, 3d ed., partly posthumous, 8 vols. and index, 1866-77 (the greatest collection of biographies of hymnists, unfortunately not reliable); the one English cyclopedic work in hymnology is J. Julian, Dictionary of Hymnology, London and New York, 1907. A work of immense erudition and alone in its field, which comprehends much that is theological, is J. M. Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 3 vols., New York, 1901-06 (vol. iii. in 2 parts is devoted to the bibliography of the subject, duly classified). While most of the Biblical Helps are noted under the appropriate titles in the text, the following are worthy of special mention here. For the Old Testament all the books except Exodus to Deuteronomy were published in handy form in the Hebrew by G. Baer and F. Delitzsch, Leipsic, 1869-95 (the text, though critical, does not concern itself with readings from the versions); the best ed. so far of the complete Hebrew text is C. D. Ginsburg's Hebrew Bible, 2 vols., London, 1894; the text alone was reprinted in 1906 (the Introduction to the Hebrew Bible by Ginsburg, London, 1897, is the one indispensable handbook to the text); yet a very excellent Biblia Hebraica has been published by R. Kittel with the assistance of Professors G. Beer, F. Buhl, G. Dalman, S. R. Driver, M. Löhr, W. Nowack, J. W. Rothstein, and V. Ryssel, in 2 parts, Leipsic, 1905-06, obtainable also in smaller sections. The new series entitled The Sacred Books of the Old Testament, ed. Paul Haupt, now in course of publication, Leipsic, London, and Baltimore, 1894 sqq., and known generally as the "Rainbow Bible" and less widely as the "Polychrome Bible," sets forth the composite origin of the books and indicates the separate documents by printing the text on backgrounds of different tints (the critical objection to the series is that as each book is not directly the result of a consensus of scholarship, the effect in each case is the pronouncement of a single scholar and consequent indecisiveness in the verdict). The lexicons which are most worthy of confidence are: W. Gesenius, Thesaurus philologicus criticus linguæ Hebrææ, 3 vols., Leipsic, 1826-53 (indispensable for the thorough student); idem, Hebräisches and Aramäisches Handwörterbuch, 14th ed. by F. Buhl, ib., 1905; and (best for the English student) F. Brown, C. A. Briggs, and S. R. Driver, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, Oxford and Boston, 1906. Besides the old Concordance of J. Fürst, Leipsic, 1848, there is now available S. Mandelkern, Veteris Testamenti concordantiæ Hebraice et Chaldaice, ib., 1896, which unfortunately is badly done, the errors being very numerous. The best grammar is W. Gesenius, Hebräische Grammatik, 27th ed. by Kautzach, 1902, Eng. transl. of 25th ed. adjusted to the 26th Germ. ed. by G. W. Collins, London, 1898, along with which should be used S. R. Driver, Treatise on the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew, London, 1892. Related to Old Testament study is M. Jastrow, Dictionary of the Targumim, Babli and Yerushalmi, and the Midrashic Literature, 2 vols., London and New York, 1903. For the Greek of the Old Testament there is sadly needed a new lexicon. The only one of moment is J. F. Schleusner, Lexici in interpretes Græcos Veteris Testamenti . . ., 2 vols., Leipsic, 1784-86. The Concordantiæ Græcæ versionis, by A. Tromm, 2 vols., Amsterdam, 1718, ought not to be discarded, even by those who possess E. Hatch and H. A. Redpath, A Concordance to the Septuagint, Oxford, 1892-1900, 2d ed., 2 vols. and supplement, 1906, the omissions in which make still necessary recourse to the older work. For New Testament texts the student will naturally turn either to the Editio octava critica major of Tischendorf, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1869-72, with Prolegomena by C. R. Gregory, 3 vols., ib., 1884-94 (containing the most complete collection of the variant readings with description of the sources from which they are derived); to the edition by B. F. Westcott and F. J. A. Hort, 2d ed., Cambridge, 1890; to R. F. Weymouth's Resultant Greek Testament, London, 1892; to E. Nestle's Novum Testamentum Græce, 3d ed., Stuttgart, 1901; or to O. von Gebhardt's ed., combining the readings of Tischendorf, Tregelles, and Westcott and Hort, 16th ed., Leipsic, 1900. Of lexicons the best for general purposes is J. H. Thayer, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, New York, 1895; but notice must be taken of H. Cremer, Biblisch-theologisches Wörterbuch, 9th ed., Gotha, 1902, Eng. transl. of 2d ed., Edinburgh, 1886, with supplement (a work that aims to bring out especially the theological, philosophical, and psychological elements of the New Testament vocabulary, and is not a general lexicon). A choice is given in concordances between C. H. Bruder, Concordantiæ . . . Novi Testamenti, 5th ed., Göttingen, 1900, and W. F. Moulton and A. S. Geden, Concordance to the Greek Testament, Edinburgh and New York, 1897 (good for Westcott and Hort's text). For the English Bible the two concordances of value now are R. Young, Analytical Concordance to the Bible, 7th ed., Edinburgh and New York, 1899; and J. Strong, Exhaustive Concordance to the Bible, New York, 1896. The best grammar of the New Testament is F. Blass, Grammatik des neutestamentlichen Griechisch, Göttingen, 1902, Eng. transl. of 2d ed., London, 1905, along with which should be used E. D. Burton, Syntax of Moods and Tenses in New Testament Greek, Chicago, 1901 (the best work on the subject). Of H. J. Moulton's Grammar of New Testament Greek, only vol. i., Prolegomena, is published, Edinburgh, 1906. General Semitic and Oriental philology is treated in separate volumes on the individual languages in the Porta linguarum orientalium, ed. J. H. Petermann, H. L. Strack, and others, Berlin, 1884 sqq. As a directory upon the geography of Palestine the following works represent the choicest: the latest and the standard bibliography of Palestine is R. Röhricht, Chronologisches Verzeichniss der auf die Geographie des heiligen Landes bezüglichen Litteratur von 333 bis 1878, Berlin, 1890. Earlier but still useful is T. Tobler, Bibliographia geographica Palestinæ, Leipsic, 1867. On the topography there is nothing in English, perhaps nothing in any other tongue, superior in its way to G. A. Smith, Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 7th ed., London, 1897. Alongside this should be put E. Robinson's Biblical Researches in Palestine, 3 vols., London and Boston, 1841, and in Germ. transl. at Halle the same year, and Later Biblical Researches, 1856 (a second ed., including both works in 3 vols., was published, Boston, 1868, but omits some things in the first edition which are sadly missed). In spite of its age this book is still useful. The Palestine Text Society of London has since 1887 been engaged in republishing the ancient itineraries and descriptions relating to Palestine, thus making available to the student material otherwise obtainable only by painful research. Special notice is deserved by the monographs published by the Palestine Exploration Fund of London, including the massive Memoirs. An epoch-making work was W. M. Thomson's The Land and the Book, 3 vols., New York, 1886 (perhaps the most popular book ever written on the subject). An old classic, by no means superseded, is H. Reland, Palestina ex monumentis illustrata, Utrecht 1714. On the antiquities of Israel two works with nearly the same title, Hebräische Archäologie, were issued in the same place and year, Freiburg, 1894, the one by I. Benzinger, in 1 vol. (new ed., Tübingen, 1907), the other by W. Nowack, in 2 vols. In the department of Church History the sources available to the student are growing exceedingly abundant. For a survey of early Christian literature the most detailed work is that of A. Harnack, Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur bis Eusebius, 2 vols. in 3 parts, Leipsic, 1893-1904 (a book of reference). A handbook of great value is G. Krüger, Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur in den drei ersten Jahrhunderten, Freiburg, 1895, 2d ed., 1898, Eng. transl., New York,1897 (a model of compression and succinctness, including short lives of the writers and good lists of literature). C. T. Cruttwell, Literary History of Early Christianity, 2 vols., London, 1893, is also a work of merit. A massive work, doing for the Byzantine and later writers of the Greek Church what Harnack does for the early period, is K. Krumbacher, Byzantinische Litteraturgeschichte, 527-1453, Munich, 1897. As a guide to the use of medieval literature, and as a help to the sources and an indicator of all that is best in those sources in modern works, there is no book which can be compared with A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica medii avi, Berlin, 1896, quoted in this work as Potthast, Wegweiser. No student of ecclesiastical history can afford to be without this most complete guide to the MSS. and the editions of the sources of knowledge of the lives of the saints, notables, and writers down to 1500 A. D. As a source for original investigation in Patristics, as well as in medieval theological writings, there is nothing so handy (because of its comprehensiveness) as the collection made under the direction of the Abbé Migne, Patrologiæ cursus completus, Series Latina, 221 vols., Paris, 1844-64; Series Græca, 162 vols., ib., 1857-66 (a set of works rarely on the market, costing about $1,200, but possessed by the principal general and theological libraries in the country; the drawback is that the text is often not critical and is very badly printed). Subsidiary to the use of Migne the following works are often quoted: J. A. Fabricius, Bibliotheca Græca, 14 vols., Hamburg, 1705-28, new ed., by G. C. Harles, 12 vols., 1790-1811, incomplete (quoted as Fabricius-Harles), which is a bibliographical and biographical directory to early patristic writings, and contains textual matter of great importance; J. S. Assemani, Bibliotheca orientalis Clementino-Vaticana, 3 vols., Rome, 1719-28 (a collection of Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Hebrew, Samaritan, Armenian, Ethiopic, Egyptian, and other documents, with critical matter relating to them); E. Martène and N. Durand, Veterum scriptorum et monumentorum . . . collectio, 9 vols., Paris, 1724-33; A. Gallandi, Bibliotheca veterum patrum antiquarumque scriptorum ecclesiasticorum, 14 vols., Venice, 1765-81 (contains some works otherwise difficult of access. An index of contents to Gallandi is to be found in J. G. Dowling, Notitiæ scriptorum sanctorum patrum, pp. 192-209, Oxford, 1839). A work of great usefulness is R. Ceillier, Histoire générale des auteurs sacrés et ecclésiastiques, new ed., 14 vols. in 15 and Table générale des matières, 2 vols., Paris, 1858-69. Noteworthy are the excellent and handy Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, Vienna, 1867 sqq., appearing in parts and not in regular order (vol. xxxxvii. appeared 1906), and Patrum apostolicorum opera, ed. O. von Gebhardt, A. Harnack, and T. Zahn, 4 vols., Leipsic, 1876-78, the same, 5th ed. minor, 1905; and J. B. Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, 4 vols., London, 1877-89 (a work which will stand as one of the monuments of English scholarship, rich in original investigation, and with excursuses of the first rank in value and brilliancy). All these are supplemented in the case of new discoveries or by new treatment of works already in hand in the Texte and Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchrisdichen Litteratur, ed. O. von Gebhardt and A. Harnack, 1st series, 15 vols., 2d series in progress (14 vols. issued), Berlin, 1883 sqq., and by the English Texts and Studies, ed. J. A. Robinson, 7 vols., Cambridge, 1891-1906. For the English student there are available the Library of the Fathers, ed. E. B. Pusey, J. Keble, and J. H. Newman, 40 vols., Oxford, 1839 sqq.; and the Ante-Nicene, and Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, best and handiest in the Am. ed., published as follows: Ante-Nicene Fathers, ed. A. Cleveland Coxe, 9 vols. and Index, Buffalo, 1887 (Index volume contains a valuable bibliography of patristics); Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 1st series, ed. P. Schaff, 14 vols., New York, 1887-92, 2d series, ed. P. Schaff and H. Wace, 14 vols., New York, 1890-1900. The first series includes 8 vols. of Augustine's works (by far the best collection yet published in English) and 6 of Chrysostom's; the 2d series includes the church histories of Eusebius, Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret, and selected works of Gregory of Nyssa, Basil, Jerome, Gennadius, and others. Not to be left out of account is the Reliquiæ sacræ of M. J. Routh, 2d ed., 5 vols., Oxford, 1846-48, a collection of patristic and other fragments still of value and constantly employed and referred to. Among collections of Sources the first place is easily held by the massive Monumenta Germaniæ historica, still in course of publication, of which over 60 volumes are already issued in folio and quarto, Hanover and Berlin. This series originated in the Gesellschaft für die altere deutsche Geschichtskunde in Frankfort, 1819. The work was put into the hands of Dr. G. H. Pertz, to whom the great comprehensiveness of the series and its consequent value is largely due. Dr. Pertz was editor and did much of the work till in 1875 it passed into the hands of Prof. G. Waitz, at whose death in 1886 Prof. W. Wattenbach took charge, and in 1888 Prof. E. Dümmler. Most of the German experts in the branches which the collected documents represent have collaborated. There are five sections, Scriptores, Leges, Diplomata, Epistolæ, Antiquitates, and many subsections. The documents in this royal series concern Christendom at large and not, as the title suggests, the German empire alone. There is a volume of Indices by O. Holder-Egger and K. Zeumer, Berlin, 1890, covering the volumes issued up to that time, and the table of contents is carried five years, farther along in the work of Potthast mentioned above. Other collections of value to the historical student are: the Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarun, ed, P. Jaffé, 6 vols., Berlin, 1864-73; M. Bouquet, Rerum Gallicarum et Francicarum scriptores. Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France, 23 vols., Paris, 1738-1876 (begun by the Benedictines of St. Maur and continued by the Academy. A new ed. was published under L. Delisle, 1869-94. The record is carried down to 1328 A. D.); L. A. Muratori, Rerum Italicarium scriptores, 25 vols. in 28, Milan, 1723-51 (covers the period 500-1500 A. D.; an elaborate new ed. under the direction of Giosuè Carducci and Vittorio Fiorini is being published by S. Lapi at Città di Castello, 1900 sqq.); Corpus scriptorum historiæ Byzantinæ, ed. Niebuhr, Bekker, and others, 49 vols., Bonn, 1828-78 (not so good in workmanship as is usual with German issues; a new ed. is in course of publication in 50 vols. at Bonn). In connection with this series of Byzantine historians should be noticed E. A. Sophocles, Greek-English Dictionary, Memorial edition, New York, 1887 (good for the Greek of the Roman and Byzantine periods). Recueil des historiens des croisades, 13 vols., Paris, 1841-85 (published under the care of the French Academy), is necessary for the study of the kingdoms of Jerusalem, Cyprus, and Armenia. The Corpus Reformatorum, begun at Halle, 1834, with the works of Melanchthon in 28 vols.; continued with Calvin's in 59; and now presenting those of Zwingli, is the indispensable source for the student of those writers. Of some value to the student, more particularly to the archeologist, are: Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum, Berlin, 1863 sqq., and Corpus inscriptionum Græcarum, Berlin, 1825 sqq. A magnificent series is in progress in the Corpus inscriptionum Semiticarum, Paris, 1881 sqq. For those who have not access to large libraries a number of selections from historical documents have been printed. For church history to the time of Constantine, cf. H. M. Gwatkin, Selection from Early Writers, London and New York, 1893; for the medieval and modern periods one of the best is E. Reich, Select Documents Illustrating Mediæval and Modern History, London, 1905, with which may be compared the smaller collection by S. Mathews, Select Mediæval Documents, 764.-1254 A.D., Boston, 1892 (both give the selections in the original languages). For students of the medieval period O. J. Thatcher and E. H. McNeal have translated many important documents in A Source Book for Mediæval History, New York, 1905. Other works of this character are E. F. Henderson, Select Documents of the Middle Ages, London, 1892; D. C. Munro and G. C. Sellery, Medieval Civilization, New York, 1904 (consists of translations or condensations from European writers on important topics); J. H. Robinson, Readings in European History, 2 vols., Boston, 1904-06 (containing translations, condensations, and adaptations of selections, ranging from Seneca to J. A. Hobson, useful for illustration of European and American history, sacred and secular). The reader of German will receive efficient help in such publications as M. Schilling, Quellenbuch zur Geschichte der Neuzeit, 2d ed., Berlin, 1890; K. Noack, Kirchengeschichtliches Lesebuch, 2d ed., Berlin 1890; D. A. Ludwig, Quellenbuch zur Kirchengeschichte, Davos, 1891; P. Mehlhorn, Aus den Quellen der Kirchengeschichte, Berlin, 1894; C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums, 2d ed., Tübingen, 1901; H. Rinn and J. Jilngst, Kirchengeschichtliches Lesebuch, Tübingen, 1905. To English Ecclesiastical Sources an excellent guide is C. Gross, Sources and Literature of English History to 1485, London, 1900. First among the collections of sources is to be mentioned A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs, Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents relating to Great Britain and Ireland, 3 vols. (vol. ii. in 2 parts), London, 1869-78 (covering the period 200-870 A. D. a storehouse of original documents, unfortunately left incomplete through the death of Haddan). Of high value are David Wilkins, Concilia Magnæ Britanniæ . . . 446-1717, 4 vols., London, 1737; Monumenta historica Britannica. Materials for the History of Britain . . . to the End of the Reign of Henry VII. Notes by H. Petrie and J. Sharpe, Introduction by T. D. Hardy, vol. i. folio, London, 1848 (no more published; issued under the direction of the Record Commission); J. A. Giles, Patres ecclesiæ Anglicani ad annum 1800, 36 vols., Oxford, 1838-43 (the work not well done, but still useful). For the reader of English alone a large number of select sources are given in H. Gee and W. J. Hardy, Documents Illustrative of English Church History, London, 1896 (covers the period 314-1700). Known by the searcher after original sources as of the highest value are the publications of a number of societies. Belonging in this class, though not under the care of any society, are Rerum Britannicarum medii avi scriptores, published under the Direction of the Master of the Rolls, London, 1858-91 (known as the Rolls Series. One of the most important of this series is No. 26, T. D. Hardy's Descriptive Catalogue of Materials Relating to the History of Great Britain and Ireland . . . to the End of the Reign of Henry VII., 3 vols. in 4, 1862-71). The Henry Bradshaw Society of London began in 1891 to publish monastic and other documents; the Camden Society exists for the purpose of publishing documents illustrative of English history (London, 1838 to date), many of which are of ecclesiastical interest; the Surtees Society of Durham, founded 1834, has issued over 100 volumes, many of which make available sources of the first rank. In the field of Biography a number of works should be known to students. A monumental work begun by J. S. Ersch and J. G. Gruber, continued by A. Leskien, is Allgemeine Encyklopädie der Wissenschaften und Künste in alphabetischer Folge, Leipsic, 1818-89 and still receiving additions. Already 100 volumes and more have been issued, and it is to be continued from time to time. The biographical interest is so pronounced in this production that it takes a front rank in this class of works. The biographical interest is also predominant in another work to which very frequent reference is made, L. S. Le Nain de Tillemont, Mémoires pour servir a l'histoire ecclésiastique des six premiers siècles, 2d ed., 16 vols., Paris, 1701-12, parts of it in an English translation by T. Deacon, 2 vols., London, 1721,1733-35. J. P. Niceron, Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des hommes illustrés dans la republique des lettres, 43 vols., Paris, 1729-45, is a work of reference often used; mention is due also to the Biographie universelle, ancienne et moderne, 45 vols., Paris, 1843 sqq., and Nouvelle biographie universelle of J. C. F. Hoefer, 46 vols., Paris, 1852-56, both serviceable and sometimes the only available works. Of national biographical works, for Germany there is the Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, 50 vols., Leipsic, 1875-1905 (still in progress; it is under the auspices of the Historical Commission of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences); for France, the Histoire littéraire de la France begun by the Benedictines of St. Maur, 12 vols., Paris, 1733-63, and continued by members of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-lettres to vol., xxxii., 1898 (a new edition is in progress, completed as far as vol. xvi.); for Protestant France may be consulted E. and E. Haag, La France protestante, 7 vols., Paris, 1846-59, 2d ed., enlarged by H. L. Bordier, vols. i.-vi., 1887-89; also belonging here is A. C. A. Agnew, Protestant Exiles from France, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1886 (printed for private circulation only). The one work of note for Holland is A. J. Van der As, Biographisch Woordenboek van der Nederlanden, Haarlem, 1852 sqq. For England there is the noble Dictionary of National Biography, edited by Leslie Stephen and Sidney Lee, 63 vols., and 3 supplement vols., with one of errata, London and New York, 1885-1904 (contains much of interest to Americans, especially on the founders and notables of colonial times; a cheaper ed. is promised); F. Boase, Modern English Biography of Persons who have died since . . . 1850, 3 vols., Truro, 1892-1901; and J. Gillow, Bibliographical Dictionary of English Catholics, 1534-1886, 5 vols., London and New York, n.d. (the lists of works by the subjects of the entries are an exceedingly valuable feature, being very complete). The Danes have also a biographical dictionary like those mentioned, Dansk biografisk lexikon, tillige omfallende Norge for tidsrummet, 1537-1814. Udgivet af C. F. Briska, Copenhagen, 1887 sqq. There is still needed an adequate work on American Biography which shall correspond to the English Dictionary of National Biography cited above. There are available the National Cyclopedia of American Biography, 13 vols., New York, 1892-1906 (the alphabetical order is abandoned and no consistent substitute adopted; an elaborate index volume appeared in 1906); and Appleton's Cyclopædia of American Biography by James Grant Wilson and John Fiske, rev. ed., 6 vols., ib., 1898-99 (the revision consists mainly of a supplement). As a propædeutic to the study of General Church History an indispensable work is E. Schürer, Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, 3d ed., 3 vols. and Index, Leipsic, 1898-1901, Eng. transl. of 2d ed., 5 vols., New York, 1891. Of works on general Church History there is a wide range of choice. A. Neander, History of the Christian Religion and Church, 11th Am. ed., 5 vols., Boston, 1872 (coming down to 1517 A. D.), and Index volume, 1881, is the most philosophical work on the subject yet published, superseded in parts by the discoveries made since it was written, but as a whole by no means obsolete; with this should go J. K. L. Gieseler, whose Ecclesiastical History in the German was in 5 vols., Darmstadt, 1824-25, Eng. transl. began by S. Davidson and others, 5 vols., Edinburgh, 1848-56, edited and translation carried further by H. B. Smith, translation completed by Miss Mary A. Robinson, 5 vols., New York, 1857-81 (especially valuable for its citation of original documents); and J. H. Kurtz, a translation of which from the 9th German edition by J. Macpherson appeared in London, 1888-89 (condensed in form and very usable; new ed. of the German by N. Bonwetsch and P. Tschackert, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1906). P. Schaff, History of the Christian. Church, 7 vols., New York, 1882-92, coming down through the Reformation, but omitting vol. v. on the scholastic period, is perhaps the most readable. A very compact work is W. Moeller, History of the Christian Church, 3 vols., London, 1892-1900 (comes down to 1648; the 2d ed. of the German original by H. von Schubert, Tübingen, 1902). J. F. Hurst, History of the Christian Church, 2 vols., New York, 1897-1900, is also compact; it is conservative in treatment of its subject. A. H. Newman, Manual of Church History, 2 vols., Philadelphia, 1900-03, is, like Hurst, compact but less conservative in tone. The reader in Church History will find three works constantly referred to; viz., J. Bingham, Origines ecclesiasticæ, or the Antiquities of the Christian Church, 10 vols., London, 1708-22, often reprinted, unfortunately not seldom in abbreviated form (recognized by scholars as a work of "profound learning and unprejudiced inquiry" and remaining one of the standards in this department; best ed. in 8 vols. of his complete works in 10 vols., by R. Bingham, Jun., Oxford, 1855); A. J. Binterim, Die vorzüglichsten Denkwürdigkeiten der christ-katholischen Kirche, 2d ed., 7 vols., Mainz, 1837-41 (a treasury of important notes on "things worthy of remembrance"); and J. C. W. Augusti, Denkwürdigkeiten aus der christlichen Archäologie, 12 vols., Leipsic, 1817-31. Out of the number of works on the History of Dogma the one likely to be most useful, though by no means the most philosophical, is A. Harnack, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, 3d ed., 3 vols., Freiburg, 1894-97, Eng. transl., 7 vols., London, 1894-99, and Boston, 1895-1900. A work of the first rank frequently referred to for the history of Europe till the fall of Constantinople is E. Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, best edition by J. B. Bury, 7 vols., London, 1896-1900 (Gibbon is said to be the only student who worked over thoroughly the Byzantine Histories; formerly regarded as an opponent of Christianity, many of his positions are now taken by church historians). For the Church History of Germany three works with the same title, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, are of supereminent worth and are generally used as works of reference: A. Hauck, vol. i., 4th ed., Leipsic, 1904, vol. ii., 2d ed., 1900, vol. iii., 3d ed., 1906, vol. iv., 2d ed., 1903 (contains rich bibliography); F. W. Rettberg, 2 vols., Göttingen, 1846-48 (especially good for origins); and J. Friedrich, 2 vols., Bamberg, 1867-69 (like Hauck, good in history of the dioceses). A handy help to the early sources of German Church History is W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Gesehichtquellen . . . bis zum Mittel des. 13. Jahrhunderts, 5th ed., 2 vols., Berlin, 1885, 6th ed., 1893-94 (the changes are so great that both editions are frequently quoted side by side). A work of genius, learning, and attractiveness, but avowedly from a strong Roman Catholic standpoint, is Johannes Janssen's History of the German People at the Close of the Middle Ages, German original ed. L. Pastor, 14th to 16th ed. completed in 8 vols.,1903, Eng. transl. by Miss Mary A. Mitchell and Miss Alice M. Christie, London, 10 vols. having appeared up to 1907. For the Church History of France a bibliography is furnished by A. Molinier, Les Sources de l'histoire de France, 2 vols., Paris, 1901-02. Besides Bouquet, already mentioned, there are available for early sources: F. Guizot, Collection des mémoires relatifs a l'histoire de France, 31 vols., Paris, 1823-35; and Gallia christiana, 16 vols., ib., 1715-1865. An important work is J. N. Jager, Histoire de l'Eglise catholique en France, 20 vols., ib., 1862-78. In English there are: W. H. Jervis, The Gallican Church, 2 vols., London, 1872; H. M. Baird, Rise of the Huguenots, 2 vols., New York, 1883; idem, The Huguenots and Henry of Navarre, 2 vols. ib., 1886-87; idem, The Huguenots and the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 2 vols., ib., 1895. A fair survey of the course of the Church in England is obtained by combining W. Bright, Chapters in Early English Church History, Oxford, 1906, with the series edited by W. R. W. Stephens and W. Hunt, 7 vols., London, 1899-1906, as follows: W. Hunt, The English Church 597-1066 (1899); W. R. W. Stephens, The English Church 1066-1272 (1901); W. W. Capes, The English Church in the 14th and 16th Centuries (1900); J. Gairdner, The English Church in the 16th Century (1903); W. H. Frere, The English Church in the Reigns of Elizabeth and James I. (1904); W. H. Hutton, The English Church from the Accession of Charles I. to the Death of Anne (1903); J. H. Overton and B. Felton, The Church of England 1714-1800 (1906). For the Church History of Ireland and Scotland the following are valuable: J. Colgan, Acta sanctorum veteris et majoris Scotiæ seu Hiberniæ sanctorum insulæ . . . 2 vols., Louvain, 1645-47; H. M. Luckock, The Church in Scotland, London, 1893; J. Lanigan, An Ecclesiastical History of Ireland . . . to the 18th Century, 2d ed., 4 vols., Dublin, 1829 (a very important and essential work); J. O'Hanlon, Lives of the Irish Saints, 7 vols., Dublin, 1875-1877; J. Healy, Insula sanctorum et doctorum, or Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars, Dublin, 1890; and T. Olden, The Church of Ireland, London, 1892. Consult particularly the list of literature under [1]CELTIC CHURCH IN BRITAIN AND IRELAND. American Church History as a whole is treated in the American Church History Series, 13 vols., New York, 1893-97, issued under the auspices of the American Society of Church History. The principal denominations receive extended treatment by some of their own specialists; for the minor denominations the provision made is only that given in vol. i. by H. K. Carroll, The Religious Forces of the United States, new ed., 1896. It is in respect to the minor sects that most difficulty is experienced in obtaining data. Another series of a more popular character The Story of the Churches, New York, 1904 sqq. For the history of the Papacy an indispensable work is C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums, 2d ed., Tübingen, 1901 (a guide to the history, giving citations from original sources and a conspectus of the weightiest literature). The only work which covers nearly the entire history of the popes is that of A. Bower, History of the Popes to 1768, 7 vols., London, 1748-61, with Introduction and Continuation by S. H. Cox, 3 vols., Philadelphia, 1847 (the latter is the ed. cited in this work; the character of the History is poor, as was that of the author). H. H. Milman, History of Latin Christianity, 9 vols., new ed., London, 1883, is excellent and brings the history down to 1455; for its period (590-795, 858-891) a worthy work is R. C. Mann, Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, vol. i., 2 parts, London, 1902; vol. iii., 1906; of great value is L. Pastor, Geschichte der Päpste seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters, 4 vols., 4th ed., Freiburg, 1901-07, Eng. transl., 6 vols., London, 1891-1902 (a most industrious and honest work, based on research in the original archives, covers the period 1305-1534; vols. i., iii., and v. of the English contain bibliographies); the period 1378-1527 is covered by M. Creighton's History of the Papacy, 6 vols., London, 1897 (an invaluable work); L. von Ranke, Römische Päpste, 9th ed., 3 vols., Leipsic, 1889, Eng. transl., 3 vols., London, 1896, is indispensable for the period 1513-1847; the story is concluded by F. Nielsen, Geschichte des Papsttums im 19. Jahrhundert, 2d ed., Gotha, 1880, Eng. transl., 2 vols., New York, 1906. A work which parallels part of those mentioned is F. Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, 5-16 Jahrhundert, 8 vols., Stuttgart, 1886-96, 5th ed., 1903 sqq., Eng. transl., from the 4th edition, 8 vols., London, 1901-02. The official Catholic record, covering the early and middle period, is the Liber pontificalis, best ed. of the whole work by L. Duchesne, containing text, introduction, and commentary, 2 vols., Paris, 1886-92, though the ed. by Mommsen, in MGH, Gestorum pontificum Romanorum vol. i, 1898, is even better so far as it goes. The bulls and briefs of the popes are best consulted in Bullarium, privilegiorum ac diplomatum Romanorum pontificum collectio C. Cocquelines, 14 vols., Rome, 1733-48, supplemented by Bullarium Benedicti XIV., 4 vols., ib., 1754-58, and Bullarii Romani continuatio (Clement XIII.-Gregory XVI.) by A. Barberi and A. Spetia, 19 vols., ib., 1835-57, the whole reedited by A. Tomassetti, 24 vols., Turin, 1857-72. Consult also L. Pastor, Acta inedita ad historiam Pontificum Romanorum, vol. i., 1376-1464, Freiburg, 1904. A number of collections and discussions of the Decrees and Proceedings of the Councils has been made. Those most cited are P. Labbe and G. Cossart, Sacrosancta concilia, 17 vols. in 18, Paris, 1672; J. Harduin, Conciliorum collectio regia maxima, 12 vols., Paris, 1715; J. D. Mansi, Sacrorum conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio, 31 vols., Venice, 1759-1798 (of the older collections the one most cited); C. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, 7 vols., Freiburg, 1855-74 (coming down to 1433; a 2d ed. was begun by the author and carried on by Cardinal Hergenröther to 1536, 9 vols. in all, 1863-90; apparently vol. vii. of the 2d ed. never appeared); the Eng. transl. of Hefele by W. R. Clark includes only vols. i.-iii. of the German, down to 787 A. D., 5 vols., 1883-96. Of all these Hefele is the most accessible and now the oftenest cited. On the subject of Monasticism all students are most deeply indebted to C. F. de T. Montalembert, Les Moines d'occident, 5 vols., Paris, 1860-67, authorized Eng. transl., 7 vols., London, 1861-79. For the history of religious orders the old standard, rich in erudition, is P. Helyot, Histoire des ordres monastiques, religieux et militaires et des, congrégations séculaires de l'un et de l'autre sexe, 8 vols., Paris, 1714-19; the best modern work is M. Heimbucher, Die Orden und Kongregationen der katholischen Kirche, 2 vols., Paderborn, 1896-97, 2d and enlarged ed., 3 vols., 1907, utilized from Vol. IV. on; the one work in English to be cited, which, however, leaves much to be desired, is C. W. Currier, History of Religious Orders, New York, 1896. On the history of the separate Orders in the Roman Catholic Church the most important are the following: for the Jesuits, A. and A. de Backer, Bibliothèque des écrivains de la société de Jésus, 7 vols., Liege, 1853-61, new ed. by C. Sommervogel, Paris, 1891 sqq.; the Historiæ societatis Jesu, by a number of hands, 6 parts in 8 vols., Rome, 1615-1759 ; J. A. M. Cretineau-Joly, Histoire religieuse, politique et littéraire de la compagnie de Jésus, 6 vols., Paris, 1844-46; for the Benedictines, J. Mabillon, Acta ordinis sancti Benedictii, 9 vols., Paris, 1668-1702, and his Annales ordinis . . . Benedicti, 6 vols., Paris, 1703-39; for the Carmelites, J. B. de Lezana, Annales sacri prophetici et Eliani ordinis . . . de Monte Carmelo, 4 vols., Rome, 1651-66; for the Dominicans, Monumenta ordinis fratrum prædicatorum, in course of publication at Louvain since 1896 (the earlier works, now being superseded, are: A. Touron, Histoire des hommes illustres de Saint-Dominique, 6 vols., Paris, 1743-49, and T. M. Mamachi, Annales ordinis prædicatorum, 5 vols., Rome, 1754); for the Cistercians, A. Maurique, Annales cisterciennes, 4 vols., Lyons, 1642-59, and P. le Nain, Essai de l'ordre de Citeaux, 9 vols., Paris, 1696-1697; for the Franciscans, the Analecta Franciscana, 3 vols., Freiburg, 1885-97, and the Annales fratrum minorum, begun by L. Wadding, 8 vols., Lyons, 1625 sqq., continued by J. de Luca and various hands at Naples and Rome, 26 vols., and covering the period 1208-1611. Somewhat akin to the foregoing is the subject of Hagiology, in which two works stand out as preeminent. The one is the Acta sanctorum of J. Bolland, the issue of which was begun in 1643, continued till the dispersion of the Jesuits compelled suspension of the work from 1794 (when vol. liii. was issued) till 1845. In all 63 vols. have been published, and a new ed. has appeared, Paris, 1863-94 (see [2]ACTA MARTYRUM, ACTA SANCTORUM). This is supplemented by the Analecta Bollandiana, edited by a number of Jesuits, Paris and Brussels, 1882 sqq. (still in progress; it includes documents unused or passed by in the Acta, newly discovered material, variant accounts, notes on the old accounts, and description of manuscripts). The other important work is the Acta sanctorum ordinis S. Benedicti of J. Mabillon and T. Ruinart, 9 vols., Paris, 1668-1701, and Venice, 1733-40. Mention may be made of the Acta sanctorum Belgii of J. Ghesquiere and others, 6 vols., Brussels, 1783-94. J. Colgan's work on Scottish and Irish saints is noted above (p. xviii.). The plan of arrangement in these compilations is that of the Roman calendar, the substance is the lives and legends concerning the saints, and the value of the material varies greatly. A very large amount of the material is derived from contemporary sources and is therefore useful when sifted by the critical processes. In the comparatively new and certainly interesting region of the Comparison and History of Religions the series of first importance, making available to readers of English many of the Bibles and Commentaries of the great religions, is that of the Sacred Books of the East, under the editorship of F. Max Müller, 48 vols., Oxford, 1879-1904. A valuable set of historical expositions of the historical religions is found in the Darstellungen am dem Gebiete der nichtchristlichen Religionsgeschichte, 15 vols., Münster, 1890-1903. The Annales du Musée Guimet, Paris, 1880 sqq., combine the features of the Sacred Books of the East (translations of native sources) and of the Hibbert Lectures (discussions of particular religions). The [3]Hibbert Lectures are a number of series, each series amounting to a treatise on some individual religion or phase of religion, delivered in Great Britain between 1878 and 1902 by specialists of eminence. A corresponding series, known as the American Lectures on the [4]History of Religion, has been in progress since 1895 and is planned ahead as far as 1910. A valuable set is found in the Handbooks on the History of Religions edited by M. Jastrow, of which the following have appeared, Boston, 1895-1905: E. W. Hopkins, Religion of India, 1895; M. Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, 1895; P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Religion of the Ancient Teutons, 1896; A. Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, 1897; M. Jastrow, Study of Religion, 1901; and G. Steindorff, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians, 1905. The best individual work on the whole subject is P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte, 3d ed., 2 vols., Tübingen, 1905 (in which the author had the cooperation of numerous scholars). Next to this is C. P. Tiele, Inleiding tot de godsdienstwetenschap, 2d ed., Amsterdam, 1900. Other important volumes are E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, 4th ed:, 2 vols., London, 1903; J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough, 2d ed., 3 vols., ib., 1900; F. B. Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, ib., 1896 (all dealing with primitive religion). GEO. W. GILMORE. __________________________________________________________________ BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX __________________________________________________________________ ABBEY: R. A. Cram, Ruined Abbeys of Great Britain, London, 1906. T. Perkins, Short Account of Ramsey Abbey, London and New York, 1907. ABBOTT, E. A.: Apologia: an Explanation and a Defense [of the Bible], London, 1907. ABBOTT, L.: Christ's Secret of Happiness, New York, 1907. Impressions of a Careless Traveler, New York, 1907. ABGAR: F. C. Burkitt, Early Eastern Christianity, pp. 11 sqq., London and New York, 1904. ABHEDANANDA: Vedanta Philosophy, New York, 1907. ABRAHAMS, I.: A Short History of Jewish Literature [70-178 A. D.], New York, 1907. Judaism, London, 1907. ABYSSINIA: R. P. Skinner, Abyssinia of Today, London, 1906. Lord Hindlip, Abyssinia, London, 1906. F. Rosen, Eine deutsche Gesandschaft in Abessinien, Leipsic, 1907. ACTA MARTYRUM, ACTA SANCTORUM: A. Dufourcq, Études sur les gesta martyrum romains, Paris, 1906 sqq. Henri Quentin, Les Martyrologes historiques du moyen âge. Étude sur la formation du martyrologe romain, Paris, 1907. P. Saintyves, Les Saints, successeurs des Dieux. Essais de mythologie chrétienne, Paris, 1907. ACTON, LORD: The History of Freedom and other Essays, London, 1907. Historical Essays and Studies, London, 1908. ADAMS, G. M.: Life, by E. E. Strong, Boston, 1907. ADDIS, W. E.: Christianity and the Roman Empire, new ed., London, 1906. ADENEY, W. F.: How to Read the Bible, new ed., London, 1907. ADLER, C.: Jews in the Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States, Philadelphia, 1907. ADRIAN IV.: Life, by J. Duncan Mackie, London, 1907. AFRICA: In General: E. d'Almeida, Historia Ætiopiæ. Libri I.-IV., Rome, 1907. B. Alexander, From the Niger to the Nile, London and New York, 1907. A. H. S. Landor, Across widest Africa, London and New York, 1907. A. B. Lloyd, In Dwarf Land and Cannibal Country, London and New York, 1907. C. G. Schillings, In Wildest Africa, New York, 1907. Algiers: Francs E. Nesbitt, Algeria and Tunis, Painted and Described, London, 1906. M. W. Hilton Simpson, Algiers and Beyond, London, 1906. Egypt: W. S. Blunt, Secret History of the English Occupation of Egypt, London, 1907. French Africa: G. François, L'Afrique occidentale française, Paris, 1907. A. Chevalier, L'Afrique centrale française (Mission Charir-Lac Tchad, 1902-04), Paris, 1907. L. Desplagnes, Le Plateau central Nigérien. Une Mission archéologique et ethnographique au Soudan français Paris, 1907. Portuguese Africa: R. C. F. Maugham, Portuguese East Africa, London, 1806. G. M. Theal, History and Ethnography of Africa South of the Zambesi. 1. The Portuguese in South Africa, from 1505-1700, London, 1907. South Africa: S. Passarge, Die Buschmänner der Kalahari, Berlin, 1907. idem, Südafrika Eine Landes-, Volks- und Wirtschaftskunde, Leipsic, 1908. J. P. Johnson, Stone Implements of South Africa, London, 1907. West Africa: R. E. Dennett, At the Back of the Black Man's Mind: or, Notes on the Kingly Office in West Africa, London, 1907. AGNES, SAINT: Life, by A. Smith, New York, 1907, and by F. Jubaru, Paris, 1907. AGNOSTICISM: W. H. Fitchett, Beliefs of Unbelief, Cincinnati, 1908. AXED, C. F.: One Hundred Responsive Readings from the Scriptures, New York, 1908. ALBERT OF BRANDENBURG: Life, by H. O. Nietschmann, Burlington, Ia., 1907. ALEXANDER IV.: Life, by F. Tenckhoff, Paderborn, 1907. ALEXANDER SEVERUS: Life, by R. V. N. Hopkins, New York, 1907. ALFRED THE GREAT: Proverbs; reed. from the MSS. by W. W. Skeat, London and New York, 1907. ALLARD, PAUL: Eng. transl. of Dix leçons sur le martyre, "Ten Lectures on the Martyrs," New York, 1907. ALLEN, A. V. G.: Life of Phillips Brooks, new ed., Boston. 1907. Freedom in the Church, Boston, 1907. cf. J. B. Johnson, Freedom through the Truth. An Examination of the Rev. A. V. G. Allen's "Freedom in the Church," New York, 1907. ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM: Life, by Miss Mary H. Allies, London, 1907. AMBROSE, SAINT, OF MILAN: J. E. Niederhuber, Die Eschatologie des heiligen Ambrosius, Paderborn, 1907. ANDREWS, L.: Primate Devotions, new ed., London, 1907. ANGUS, J.: Bible Handbook, rev. ed., 2d impression, 1907. ANNA COMNENA: L. Du Sommerard, Anne Comnène, témoin des croisades; Agnés de France, Paris, 1907. APHRAATES: F. C. Burkitt, Early Eastern Christianity, pp. 133 sqq., London and New York, 1904. APOCRYPHA, The Old Testament: Die Weisheit des Jesus Sirach. Hebräisch und deutsch. Mit einem hebräischen Glossar, Berlin, 1906. R. Smend, Griechisch-syrisch-hebräischer Index zur Weisheit des Jesus Sirach, Berlin, 1907. Die Weisheit des Jesus Sirach erkärt, Berlin, 1907. APOCRYPHA, The New Testament: The Gospel of Barnabas, ed. and transl. from the Italian MS. in the Imperial Library of Vienna, by Lonsdale and Laura Ragg, London, 1907. APOLLONIUS OF TYANA: T. Whittaker, Apollonius of Tyana and other Essays, London, 1906. APOLOGETICS: Jean Rivière, Saint Justin et les apologistes du second sièle, Paris, 1907. E. F. Scott, The Apologetic of the New Testament, London, 1907. S. Weber, Christliche Apologetik, Freiburg, 1907. O. Zoeckler, Geschichte der Apologie des Christentums, Gütersloh, 1907. ARIANISM: S. Rogala, Die Anfänge des arianischen Streites untersucht, Paderborn, 1907. ARISTOTLE: Transl. of the first book of his "Metaphysics," by A. E. Taylor, Chicago, 1907. New complete transl., ed. J. A. Smith and W. D. Ross, London and New York, 1908 sqq. ARTHUR, W.: Life, by T. B. Stephenson, London, 1907. ASIA MINOR: W. M. Ramsay, The Cities of Saint Paul; their Influence on his Life and Thought. The Cities of Eastern Asia Minor, London and New York, 1908. ASSYRIA: H. Winckler, History of Babylonia and Assyria, London and New York, 1907. ATHANASIUS: F. Cavallera, S. Athanase, Paris, 1907. ATONEMENT: John Scott Lidgett, The Spiritual Principle of the Atonement as a Satisfaction made to God for the Sins of the World, 4th ed., London, 1907. The Atonement in Modern Thought. A. Symposium, 3d ed., London, 1907. H. C. Beaching and A. Nairne, Bible Doctrine of the Atonement, London and New York, 1907. J. M. Campbell, The Atonement the Heart of the Gospel, London, 1907. AUGUSTINE, SAINT, OF HIPPO: Preaching and Teaching according to Saint Augustine. Being a new Translation of his De doctrina Christiana, Book 4, and De rudibus catechisandis. With three introductory Essays, by Rev. W. J. Vashon Baker and Rev. Cyril Bickersteth, London, 1907. P. Friedrich, Die Marieologie des heiligen Augustinus, Cologne, 1907. AUSTRALIA: N. W. Thomas, Natives of Australia, London, 1906. Kinship Organizations and Group Marriage in Australia, London and New York, 1907. K. L. Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe. Study of Aboriginal Life in Australia, London, 1906. A. Buchanan, The Real Australia, London, 1907. BABCOCK, M. D.: Fragments that Remain; Sermons, Addresses and Prayers, ed. Jessie B. Goetschius, New York, 1907. BABYLONIA: H. Winckler, History of Babylonia and Assyria, London and New York, 1907. R. J. Lau, Old Babylonian Temple Records, London, 1907. J. D. Prince, Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon, New York, 1908. E. Mayer, Sumerier und Semiten in Babylonia, Berlin, 1907. BAMPTON LECTURES: 1907: J. H. F. Peile, The Reproach of the Gospel: an Enquiry into the apparent Failure of Christianity as a General Rule of Life and Conduct, London and New York, 1907. BANKS, L. A.: The Sinner and his Friends, New York, 1907. BAPTISM: R. Ayres, Christian Baptism. A Treatise on the Male of Administering the Ordinance by the Apostles and their Successors in the Early Ages of the Church, London, 1907. Philalethes, Baptismon Didache; or, Scriptural Studies on Baptisms, especially Christian Baptism, London, 1907. BAPTISTS: H. C. Vedder, Short History, new ed., Philadelphia, 1907. BARDESANES: F. C. Burkitt, Early Eastern Christianity, lect. v., London and New York, 1904. BARING-GOULD: Sermons to Children, 2d series, London, 1907. Tragedy of the Cæsars, new ed., London, 1907. Nero, London, 1907. Devonshire and Strange Events, London, 1907. A Book of the Pyrenees, London, 1907. Restitution of All Things, London, 1907. BARTON, W. E.: Sweetest Story ever Told: Jesus and His Love, Chicago, 1907. __________________________________________________________________ LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS __________________________________________________________________ [Abbreviations in common use or self-evident are not included here. For additional information concerning the works listed, see [5]Concerning Bibliography, pp. viii.-ix., above, and the appropriate articles in the body of the work. The editions named are those cited in the work.] ADB Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, 50 vols., Leipsic, 1875-1905 Adv. adversus, "against" AJP American Journal of Philology, Baltimore, 1880 sqq. AJT American Journal of Theology, Chicago, 1897 sqq. AKR Archiv für katholisches Kirchenrecht, Innsbruck, 1857-81, Mains, 1872 sqq. ALKG Archiv für Litteratur- und Kirchengeschichte des Mittalters, Freiburg, 1885 sqq. Am. American AMA Abhandlungen der Münehener Akademie, Munich, 1763 sqq. ANF Ante-Nicene Fathers, American edition by A. Cleveland Coxe, 8 vols., and index, Buffalo, 1887; vol. ix., ed. Allan Menzies, New York, 1897 Apoc. Apocrypha, apocryphal Apol. Apologia, Apology Arab. Arabic Aram. Aramaic art. article Art. Schmal. Schmalkald Articles ASB Acta sanctorum, ed. J. Bolland and others, Antwerp, 1643 sqq. ASM Acta sanctorum ordinis S. Benedicti, ed. J. Mabillon, 9 vols., Paris, 1668-1701 Assyr. Assyrian A. T. Altes Testament, "Old Testament" Augs. Con. Augsburg Confession A. V. Authorized Version (of the English Bible) AZ Allgemeine Zeitung, Augsburg, Tübingen, Stuttgart, and Tübingen, 1798 sqq. Benzinger, Archäologie I. Benzinger, Hebräische Archäologie, Freiburg, 1894 Bertholdt, Einleitung L. Bertholdt, Historisch-Kritische Einleitung . . . des Alten and Neuen Testaments, 8 vols., Erlangen, 1812-19 BFBS British and Foreign Bible Society Bingham, Origines J. Bingham, Origines ecclesiasticæ, 10 vols., London, 1708-22; new ed., Oxford, 1855 Bouquet, Recueil M. Bouquet, Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France, continued by various hands, 23 vols., Paris, 1738-76 Bower, Popes Archibald Bower, History of the Popes . . . to 1758. continued by S. H. Cox, 8 vols., Philadelphia, 1845-47 BQR Baptist Quarterly Review, Philadelphia, 1867 sqq. BRG See Jaffé Cant. Canticles, Song of Solomon cap. caput, "chapter" Ceillier, Auteurs R. Ceillier, Histoire des auteurs sacris et ecclisiastiques, 18 vols. in 17, Paris, 1858-69 Chron. Chronicon, "Chronicles" I Chron. I Chronicles II Chron. II Chronicles CIG Corpus inscriptionum Græcarum, Berlin, 1825 sqq. CIL Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum, Berlin, 1863 sqq. CIS Corpus inscriptionum Semiticarum, Paris, 1881 sqq. cod. codex cod. D. codex Beza cod. Theod. codex Theodosianus Col. Epistle to the Colossians col., cols. column, columns Conf. Confessiones, "Confessions" I Cor. First Epistle to the Corinthians II Cor. Second Epistle to the Corinthians COT See Schrader CR Corpus reformatorum, begun at Halle, 1834, vol. lxxxix., Berlin, 1905 Creighton, Papacy M. Creighton, A History of the Papacy from the Great Schism to the Sack of Rome, new ed., 8 vols., New York and London, 1897 CSEL Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, Vienna, 1887 sqq. CSHB Corpus scriptorum historiæ Byzantium, 48 vols., Bonn, 1828-78 Currier, Religious Orders C. W. Currier, History of Religious Orders, New York, 1896 D. Deuteronomist DACL F. Cabrol, Dictionnaire d'archéologie chretienne at de liturgie, Paris, 1903 sqq. Dan. Daniel DB J. Hastings, Dictionary of the Bible, 4 vols. and extra vol., Edinburgh and New York, 1898-1904 DCA W. Smith and S. Cheetham, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, 2 vols., London, 1875-80 DCB W. Smith and H. Wace, Dictionary of Christian Biography, 4 vols., Boston, 1877-87 Deut. Deuteronomy De vir. ill. De viris illustribus De Wette-Schrader, Einleitung W. M. L. de Wette, Lehrbuch der historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die Bibel. ed. E. Schrader. Berlin, 1869 DGQ See Wattenbach DNB L. Stephen and S. Lee, Dictionary of National Biography, 63 vols. and supplement 3 vols., London, 1885-1901 Driver, Introduction S. R. Driver, Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, 5th ed., New York, 1894 E. Elohist EB T. K. Cheyne and J. S. Black, Encyclopædia Biblica, 4 vols., London and New York, 1899-1903 Eccl. Ecclesia, "Church"; ecclesiasticus, "ecclesiastical" Eccles. Ecclesiastes Ecclus. Ecclesiasticus ed. edition; edidit, "edited by" EJ Elohist Jahvist (Yahwist) Eph. Epistle to the Ephesians Epist. Epistola, Epistolæ, "Epistle," "Epistles" Ersch and Gruber, Encyklopädie J. S. Ersch and J. G. Gruber, Allgemeine Encyklopädie der Wissenschaften und Küste, Leipsic, 1818 sqq. E. V. English versions (of the Bible) Ex. Exodus Ezek. Ezekiel fasc. fasciculus Friedrich, KD J. Friedrich, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, 2 vols., Bamberg. 1887-69 Fritzsche, Exegetisches Handbuch O. F. Fritzsche and C. L. W. Grimm, Kurzgefassics exegetisches Handbuch su den Apocryphen des Allen Testaments, 6 parts, Zurich, 1851-60 Gal. Epistle to the Galatians Gee and Hardy, Documents H. Gee and W. J. Hardy, Documents Illustrative of English Church History, London, 1898 Gen. Genesis Germ. German GGA Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen, Göttingen, 1824 sqq. Gibbon, Decline and Fall E. Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ed. J. B. Bury, 7 vols., London, 1896-1900 Gk. Greek, Grecized Gross, Sources C. Gross, The Sources and Literature of English History . . . to 1485, London, 1900 Hab. Habakkuk Haddan and Stubbs, Councils A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs, Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents Relating to Great Britain and Ireland, 3 vols., Oxford, 1889-78 Hær Refers to patristic works on heresies or heretics, Tertullian's De præscriptione, the Pros haireseis of Irenæus, the Panarion of Epiphanius, etc. Hag. Haggai Harduin, Concilia J. Harduin, Conciliorum collectio regia maxima, 12 vols., Paris, 1715 Harnack, Dogma A. Harnack, History of Dogma . . . from the 3d German edition, 7 vols., Boston, 1896-1900 Harnack, Litteratur A. Harnack, Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur bis Eusebius; 2 vols. in 3, Leipsic, 1893-1904 Hauck, KD A. Hauck, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, vol. i., Leipsic, 1904; vol. ii., 1900; vol. iii., 1905; vol. iv., 1903 Hauck-Herzog, RE Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche, founded by J. J. Herzog, 3d ed. by A. Hauck, Leipsic, 1898 sqq. Heb. Epistle to the Hebrews Hebr. Hebrew Hefele, Conciliengeschichte C. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, continued by J. Hergenröther, 9 vols., Freiburg, 1883-93 Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen M. Heimbucher, Die Orden und Kongregationen der katholischen Kirche, 2 vols., Paderborn, 1898-97 Helyot, Ordres monastiques P. Helyot, Histoire des ordres monastiques, religieux et militaires, 8 vols., Paris, 1714-19; new ed., 1839-42 Henderson, Documents E. F. Henderson, Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages, London, 1892 Hist. History, histoire, historia Hist. eccl. Historia ecclesiastica, ecclesiæ, "Church History" Hom. Homilia, homiliai, "homily, homilies" Hos. Hosea Isa. Isaiah Ital. Italian J Jahvist (Yahwist) JA Journal Asiatique, Paris, 1822 sqq. Jaffé, BRG P. Jaffé, Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarum, 8 vols., Berlin, 1884-73 Jaffé, Regesta P. Jaffé, Regesta pontificum Romanorum . . . ad annum 1198, Berlin, 1851; 2d ed., Leipsic, 1881-88 JBL Journal of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, first appeared as Journal of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, Middletown, 1882-88, then Boston, 1890 sqq. JE The Jewish Encyclopedia, 12 vols., New York, 1901-06 JE the combined narrative of the Jahvist (Yahwist) and Elohist Jer. Jeremiah Josephus, Ant. Flavius Josephus, "Antiquities of the Jews" Josephus, Apion Flavius Josephus, "Against Apion" Josephus, Life Life of Flavius Josephus Josephus, War Flavius Josephus, "The Jewish War" Josh. Joshua JPT Jahrbücher für protestantische Theologie, Leipsic, 1875 sqq. JQR The Jewish Quarterly Review, London, 1888 sqq. JTS Journal of Theological Studies, London, 1899 sqq. Julian, Hymnology J. Julian, A Dictionary of Hymnology, New York, 1892 KAT See Schrader KB See Schrader KD See Friedrich Hauck, Rettberg KL Weiser and Welte's Kirchenlexikon, 2d ed., by J. Hergenröther and F. Kaulen, 12 vols. Freiburg, 1882-1903 G. Krüger, History G. Krüger, History of Early Christian Literature in the First Three Centuries, New York, 1897. Krumbacher, Geschichte K. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur, 2d ed., Munich, 1897 Labbe, Concilia P. Labbe, Sacrorum concliorum nova et amplissima collectio. 31 vols., Florence and Venice, 1759-98 Lam. Lamentations Lanigan, Eccl. Hist. J. Lanigan, Ecclesiastical History of Ireland to the 13th Century, 4 vols., Dublin, 1829. Lat. Latin, Latinized Leg. Legis, Legum Lev. Leviticus LXX. The Septuagint I Macc. I Maccabees II Macc. II Maccabees Mai, Nova collectio A. Mai, Scriptorum veterum nova collectio, 10 vols., Rome, 1826-38 Mal. Malachi Mann, Popes R. C. Mann, Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, London, 1902 sqq. Mansi, Concilia G. D. Mann, Sanctorum conciliorum collectio nova, 31 vols., Florence and Venice, 1728 Matt. Matthew McClintock and Strong, Cyclopædia J. McClintock and J. Strong, Cyclopædia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature, 10 vols. and supplement 2 vols., New York, 1869-87 MGH Monumenta Germania historica, ed. G. H. Perts and others, Hanover and Berlin, 1826 sqq. The following abbreviations are used for the sections and subsections of this work: Ant., Antiquitates, "Antiquities"; Auct. ant., Auctores antiquissimi, "Oldest Writers"; Chron. min., Chronica minora, "Lesser Chronicles"; Dip., Diplomata, "Diplomas, Documents"; Epist., Epistolæ,, "Letters"; Gest. pont. Rom., Gesta pontificum Romanorum, "Deeds of the Popes of Rome"; Leg., Leges, "Laws"; Lib. de lite, Libelli de lite inter regnum et sacerdotium sæculorum xi et xii conscripti, "Books concerning the Strife between the Civil and Ecclesiastical Authorities in the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries"; Nec., Necrologia Germanæ, "Necrology of Germany"; Poet. Lat. ævi Car., Poetæ Latini ævi Carolini, "Latin Poets of the Caroline Time"; Poet. Lat. ævi. Poetæ Latini medii ævi, "Latin Poets of the Middle Ages"; Script., Scriptores, "Writers"; Script. rer. Germ., Scriptores rerum Germanicorum, "Writers on German Subjects"; Script. rer. Langob., Scriptores rerum Langobardicarum et Italicarum, "Writers on Lombard and Italian Subjects"; Script. rer. Merov., Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum, "Writers on Merovingian Subjects" Mic. Micah Milman, Latin Christianity H. H. Milman, History of Latin Christianity, Including that of the Popes to . . . Nicholas V., 8 vols., London, 1850-61 Mirbt, Quellen C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums und das fömischen Katholicismus, Tübingen, 1901 Moeller, Christian Church W. Moeller, History of the Christian Church, 3 vols., London, 1892-1900 MPG J. P. Migne, Patrologiæ cursus completus, series Græca, 162 vols., Paris, 1857-68 MPL J. P. Migne, Patrologiæ cursus completus, series Latina, 221 vols., Paris, 1844-644 MS., MSS. Manuscript, Manuscripts Muratori, Scriptores L. A. Muratori, Rerum Italicarum scriptores, 28 vols. 1723-51 NA Neuse Archiv der Gesselschaft für alters deutsche Geschichtskunde, Hanover, 1876 sqq. Nah. Nahum n.d. no date of publication Neander Christian Church A. Neander, General History of the Christian Religion and Church, 6 vols. and index, Boston, 1872-81 Neh. Nehemiah Niceron, Memoires R. P. Niceron, Memoires pour servir à l'histoire des hommes illustré . . ., 43 vols., Paris, 1729-45 NKZ Neus kirchliche Zeitschrift, Leipsic, 1890 Nowack, Archäologie W. Nowack, Lahrbuch der hebräischen Archäologie, 2 vols., Freiburg, 1894 n.p. no place of publication NPNF The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 1st series, 14 vols., New York. 1887-92; 2d series, 14 vols., New York, 1890-1900 N. T. New Testament, Novum Testamentum, Nouveau Testament, Neuse Testament Num. Numbers Ob. Obadiah O.B., O.S.B. Ordo sancti Benediciti, "Order of St. Benedict" O. T. Old Testament OTJC See Smithh P Priestly document Pastor, Popes L. Pastor, The History the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages, 6 vols., London 1891-1902 PEA Patres ecclesiæ Anglicanæ ed. J. A. Giles, 34 vols., London, 1838-46 PEF Palestine Exploration Fund I Pet. First Epistle of Peter II Pet. Second Epistle of Peter Pliny, Hist. nat. Pliny, Historia naturalis Potthast, Wegweiser A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica medii ævi. Wegweiser durch die Geschichtswerke, Berlin, 1898 Prov. Proverbs Ps. Psalms PSBA Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology, London, 1880 sqq. q.v., qq.v. quod (quæ) vide, "which see" R. Redactor Ranke, Popes L. von Ranke, History of the Popes, 1896 RDM Revue des deux mondee, Paris, 1831 sqq. RE See Hauck-Herzog Reich, Documents E. Reich, Select Documents Illustrating Mediæval and Modern History, London, 1905 REJ Revue des études Juives, Paris, 1880 sqq. Rettberg, KD F. W. Rettberg, Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands, 2 vols., Göttingen, 1846-48 Rev. Book of Revelation Richter, Kirchenrecht A. L. Richter, Lehrbuch des katholischen und evangelischen Kirchenrechts, 8th ed. by W. Kahl, Leipsic, 1888 Robinson, European History J. H. Robinson, Readings in European History, 2 vols., Boston, 1904-08 Robinson, Researches and Later Researches E. Robinson, Biblical Researches in Palestine, Boston, 1841, and Later Biblical Researches in Palestine, 3d ed. of the whole, 3 vols., 1867 Rom. Epistle to the Romans RTP Revue de théologie et de philosophie, Lausanne, 18733 R. V. Revised Version (of the English Bible) sæc. sæculum, "century" I Sam. I Samuel II Sam. II Samuel SBOT Sacred Books of the Old Testament ("Rainbow Bible"), Leipsic, London, and Baltimore, 1894 sqq. Schaff, Christian Church P. Schaff, History of the Christian Church, vols. i.-iv., vi., vii., New York 1882-92 Schaff, Creeds P. Schaff, The Creeds of Christendom, 3 vols., New York, 1877-84 Schrader, COT E. Schrader, Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament, 2 vols., London, 1885-88 Schrader, KAT E. Schrader, Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, 2 vols., Berlin, 1902-03 Schrader, KB E. Schrader, Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek, 8 vols., Berlin, 1889-1901 Schürer, Geschichte E. Schürer, Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, 3 vols., Leipsic, 1898-1901; Eng. transl., 5 vols., New York, 1891 Script. Scriptores, "writers" Sent. Sententiæ, "Sentences" S. J. Societas Jesu, "Society of Jesus" SK Theologische Studien und Kritiken, Hamburg, 1826 sqq. Smith, Kinship W. B. Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, London, 1903 Smith, OTJC W. R. Smith, The Old Testament in the Jewish Church, London, 1892 Smith, Prophets W. R. Smith, Prophets of Israel . . . to the Eighth Century, London, 1895 Smith, Rel. of Sem. W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, London, 1894 S. P. C. K. Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge S. P. G. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts sq., sqq. and following Strom. Stromata, "Miscellanies" s.v.. sub voce, or sub verbo Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book O. J. Thatcher and E. H. McNeal, A Source Book for Mediæval History, New York, 1905 I Thess. First Epistle to the Thessalonians II Thess. Second epistle to the Thessalonians ThT Theologische Tijdschrift, Amsterdam and Leyden, 1867 sqq. Tillemont, Mémoires L. S. le Nain de Tillemont, Mémoires . . . ecclésiastiques des six premiers siècles, 16 vols., Brussels, 1693-1712 I Tim. First Epistle to Timothy II Tim. Second Epistle to Timothy TJB Theologischer Jahresbericht, Leipsic, 1882-1887, Freiburg, 1888, Brunswick, 1889-1897, Berlin, 1898 sqq. TLB Theologisches Litteraturblatt, Bonn, 1866 sqq. TLZ Theologische Litteraturzeitung, Leipsic, 1876 sqq. Tob. Tobit TQ Theologische Quartalschrift, Tübingen, 1819 sqq. TS J. A. Robinson, Texts and Studies, Cambridge, 1891 sqq. TSBA Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archæology, London, 1872 sqq. TSK Theologische Studien und Kritiken, Hamburg, 1828 sqq. TU Texte und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der altchristlichen Litteratur, ed. O. von Gebhardt and A. Harnack, Leipsic, 1882 sqq. TZT Tübingen Zeitschrift für Theologie, Tübingen, 1838-40 Ugolini, Thesaurus B. Ugolinus, Thesaurus antiquitarum sacrarum, 34 vols., Venice, 1744-69 V. T. Vetus Testamentum, Vieux Testament, "Old Testament" Wattenbach, DGQ W. Wattenbach, Deutschlands Geschichtequellen, 5th ed., 2 vols., Berlin, 1885; 6th ed., 1893-94 Wellhausen, Heidentum J. Wellhausen, Reste arabischen Heidentums, Berlin, 1887 ZA Zeitschrift für Assyriologie, Leipsic, 1886-88, Berlin, 1889 sqq. Zahn, Kanon. T. Zahn, Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1888-92 ZATW Zeitschrift für die alttestamentlichen Wissenschaft, Giessen, 1881 sqq. ZDMG Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gessellschaft, Leipsic, 1847 sqq. ZDPV Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins, Leipsic, 1878 sqq. Zech. Zechariah Zeph. Zephaniah ZHT Zeitschrift für die historische Theologie, published successively at Leipsic, Hamburg, and Gotha, 1832-75 ZKG Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte, Gotha, 1876 sqq. ZKT Zeitschrift für katholische Theologie, Innsbruck, 1877 sqq. ZKW Zeitschrift für kirchliche Wissenschaft und kirchliches Leben, Leipsic, 1880-89 ZWT Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Theologie, Jena, 1858-60, Halle, 1861-67, Leipsic, 1868 sqq. __________________________________________________________________ SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew: ' = ' or omitted at the z = z = beginning of a word. ch = ? p = p b = b m = ? ph = ph or p v = bh or b y = y ts = ? g = g k = k q = ? g = gh or g k = kh or k r = r d = d l = l s = s d = dh or d m = m s = sh h = h n = n t = t v = w s = s t = th or t The vowels are transcribed by a, e, i, o, u, without attempt to indicate quantity or quality. Arabic and other Semitic languages are transliterated according to the same system as Hebrew. Greek is written with Roman characters, the common equivalents being used. __________________________________________________________________ KEY TO PRONUNCIATION When the pronunciation is self-evident the titles are not respelled; when by mere division and accentuation it can be shown sufficiently clearly the titles have been divided into syllables, and the accented syllables indicated. a as in sofa o as in not iu ? ? ?as in duration ä?"?"?arm ö?"?"?n oor c = k? ?"?"?cat a?"?"?at u?"?"?full ch? ? ?"?"?church ???"?"?fare u?"?"?rule cw = qu as in queen e?"?"?pen [1] U?"?"?but dh (th) ?"?"?the ê?"?"?fate U?"?"?burn f ? ? ??"?"?fancy i ?"?"?tin ai?"?"?pine g (hard) ?"?" go î ?"?"?machine au "?"?out H? ?? ?"?" loch (Scotch) o?"?"?obey ei?"?"?oil hw (wh)?"?"?why O?"?"?no iu?"?"?few j? ? ? ?"?"?jaw __________________________________________________________________ [1] In accented syllables only; in unaccented syllables it approximates the sound of e in over. __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ A Aachen, Synods of AACHEN, ??´ken, SYNODS OF: The political importance of the town of Aachen (Latin Aquisgranum; French, Aix-la-Chapelle) under Charlemagne and his successors made it a favorite meeting-place for various assemblies. The first synod of Aachen (or Aix) is usually reckoned as having met on Mar. 23, 789, and there is no doubt that a gathering took place on that day; but its results are known only from two royal decrees, the so called Admonitio generalis (MGH, Leg., i., Capitularia regum Francorum, ed. A. Boretius, i., 1883, cap. 22), and the instructions for the royal representatives (cap. 23). The former repeats a summary of the earlier canonical legislation on the duties of the clergy, and adds further regulations for the improvement of clerical and social life, dealing with diligence in preaching, the education of the clergy, the observance of the Lord's Day, just judgment, equal weights and measures, hospitality, and the prevention of witchcraft and perjury. The other document treats of monastic discipline and the regulation of civil society. It is questionable if this gathering can be properly called a synod; and still less can the name be applied to that of 797 (cap. 27), which regulated the condition of the conquered Saxons. On the other hand, the assembly of June, 799, in which Alcuin disputed with Felix of Urgel (see [6]Adoptionism) may be so called, and likewise the three meetings in the years 801 and 802. Their deliberations led to a series of decrees (cap. 33-35 and 36-41) which throw light on Charlemagne's endeavors to elevate clergy and laity. The most important is the great instruction for the missi dominici sent out in the spring of 802, dealing with the discipline of bishops, clergy, monks, and nuns, the faithful performance of their duties by public officials, and the establishment of justice throughout the empire. Among the results of the autumn synod of 802, cap. 36 and 38, deserve special attention; they deal with the duty of intercession for the emperor and bishops, the education of the people, tithes, divine worship and the sacraments, clerical discipline, and the system of ecclesiastical visitations. The next synod (Nov. 809), was occupied with the doctrine of the procession of the Holy Ghost. In the autumn of 816, or the summer of 817, Louis le Débonnaire assembled his first synod at Aachen, when the bishops laid down new regulations for the community life, both of canons and nuns. In the summer of 817 an assembly of abbots discussed the observance of the Benedictine rule. The diets of 819 and 825 and similar later assemblies can again scarcely be counted as synods, though the one held in the sacristy of the cathedral, Feb. 6, 835, has a synodical character. It adopted a thoroughgoing pronouncement on the life and teaching of bishops and inferior clergy, and on the position of the king, his family, and his ministers, with a view to regulating the confusion which the strife between Louis and his sons had caused. It also required of Pépin of Aquitaine that he should restore the church property which he had appropriated. For the synod held at Aachen in connection with the question of Lothaire's divorce, see [7]Nicholas I. The last two synods of Aachen were held under Henry II, one in the year 1000 in connection with the restoration of the bishopric of Merseburg (see [8]Willigis); the other, in 1023, when the contest between the dioceses of Cologne and Liége for the possession of the monastery of Burtscheid was decided in favor of the latter. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Fragmentum historicum de concilio Aquisgranensi, in Mabillon, Analecta, i. 52, Paris, 1723, and in Bouquet, Recueil, vi. 415-443; Epistola Synodi Aquisgranensis ad Pippin, in Labbe, Concilia, vii. 1728, and in Bouquet, Recueil, vi. 354; A. J. Binterim, Pragmatische Geschichte der deutschen . . . Concilien, ii., iii., Mains, 1836-37; MGH, Leg. i. (1835) 465; ib. Capitularia reg. Franc., ii. 2 (1893), 463-466; Hauck, KD, ii.; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vols. iii., iv.; MGH, Leg. sectio iii., Concilia, i. 1 (1904). Aaron AARON: The brother of Moses. In the Yahwistic sources of the Pentateuch he is called "Aaron, the Levite," i.e., the priest. He is first mentioned when Yahweh appoints him as spokesman for Moses in the mission to Pharaoh (Ex. iv. 10-17, 27-31); and consistently he always appears with Moses before the Egyptian king. Later Aaron and Hur support Moses during the battle with the Amalekites (Ex. xvii. 8-13). When the covenant was made at Sinai, Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu, with seventy elders, accompanied Moses to the mountain; but Moses alone "went up into the mount of God" (Ex. xxiv. 1-2, 9-18; cf. xix. 24). While Moses delayed on the mountain Aaron made the golden calf; and later he sought to excuse himself by saying that he had acted under compulsion of the people, who were impatient at the long absence of their leader (Ex. xxxii.). In the narrative of Num. xii., Aaron again appears in an unfavorable light. He is said to have died at Mosera, in the wilderness, and Eleazar, his son took his place as priest (Deut. x. 6). Finally, he is incidentally mentioned in Josh. xxiv. 5 and 33. The significant fact in all these notices is that the Yahwistic sources recognize Aaron as priest. In the Priest code Aaron's genealogy and family are given in detail (Ex. vi. 20, 23). He is three years older than Moses (Ex. vii. 7). He is made Moses's "prophet" before Pharaoh (Ex. vii. 1-2), and, accordingly, plays an important part in all transactions at the Egyptian court. By means of his rod the miracles are performed (Ex. vii., viii.). During the wandering Aaron retains his prominent position, although subordinate to Moses. The hungry people murmur against both brothers, and, at Moses's command, Aaron replies to them, and later preserves a pot of manna before Yahweh (Ex. xvi.). The priesthood is instituted at Sinai and solemnly conferred upon Aaron, his four sons, and their descendants (Ex. xxviii.). Of these four sons, only Eleazar and Ithamar remain after the destruction of Nadab and Abihu (Lev. x. 1-7). Aaron is not only original ancestor and type of the priests as distinguished from the Levites, but also, in narrower sense, prototype of the high priest, who was always from his family and apparently the first-born son in direct line. A few of the laws of P are delivered to Aaron as well as Moses (Lev. xi. 1, xiii. 1, xiv. 33, xv. 1; Num. xix. 1). After the departure from Sinai, Korah and his followers rebel against Moses and Aaron; and Yahweh miraculously vindicates the supremacy of the latter (Num. xvi.-xvii.; the narrative is amplified by an account of the uprising of Dathan and Abiram and a contest between Levites and priests). Aaron dies on Mount Hor, and Eleazar becomes priest in his stead (Num. xx. 22-29, xxxiii. 38-39). Of other Old Testament passages in which Aaron is mentioned none is noteworthy except Mic. vi. 4, where he is joined with Moses and Miriam. (F. Buhl.) It is important for the history of the priesthood in Israel to notice that in the narratives of J and E (called "Yahwistic" above) the priestly function of Aaron is quite subordinate, he being mainly represented there as the spokesman and the minister of Moses and, along with Hur, as his representative--a "judge" of the people (Ex. xxiv. 13, 14). It is in the priestly tradition that the idea of Aaron's sacerdotal functions is elaborately developed. J. F. M. Bibliography: S. Baring-Gould, Legends of O. T. Characters, 2 vols., London, 1871; J. Wellhausen, Geschichte Israels, chap. iv., Berlin. 1878; H. van Oort, Die Aaroneiden in ThT, xviii. (1884) 289 and 235; J. Bensinger. Hebräische Archäologie, pp. 405-428, Freiburg, 1894; W. Nowack, Archäologie, ii. 87-130, ib. 1894; A. Kuenen in ThT, xxiv. (1890) 1-42; A. van Hoonacker, Le Sacerdoce lévitique dans la loi et dans l'histoire des Hebreux, Louvain, 1899; S. I. Curtiss, The Levitical Priests, Edinburgh, 1877. AARON AND JULIUS AARON AND JULIUS: English Martyrs. See [9]Alban, Saint, of Verulam. Abaddon ABADDON, ?-bad´?n ("Destruction"): In the Old Testament a poetic name for the kingdom of the dead, Hades, or Sheol (Job xxvi. 6; Prov. xv. 11, where Abaddon is parallel to Sheol). The rabbis used the name for the nethermost part of hell. In Rev. ix. 11 the "angel of the bottomless pit" is called Abaddon, which is there explained as the Greek Apollyon ("destroyer"); and he is described as king of the locusts which rose at the sounding of the fifth trumpet. In like manner, in Rev. vi. 8, Hades is personified following after death to conquer the fourth part of the earth. In rabbinical writings Abaddon and Death are also personified (cf. Job xxviii. 22). Ab´adim AB´ADIM. See [10]Talmud. A-bar´ba-nel A-BAR´BA-NEL. See [11]Abrabanel. Abauzit Firmin ABAUZIT, ??´´bO´´zî´, FIRMIN: French Reformed scholar; b. of Huguenot parentage at Uzès (20 m. w.n.w. of Avignon), Languedoc, Nov. 11, 1679; d. at Geneva, Mar. 20,1767. After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) an attempt was made to bring him up as a Roman Catholic, but it was frustrated by his mother. After some hardships and sufferings, mother and son settled in Geneva, where Abauzit was educated and where, with the exception of visits to Holland and England in 1698, he spent his long life devoted to study and the service of the city library. He was one of the most learned men of his time, possessed much versatility, and enjoyed the friendship of scholars like Bayle, Jurieu, Basnage, and Newton. Nevertheless, he published practically nothing; and after his death many of his manuscripts were destroyed by his heirs. A volume of OEuvres diverses appeared at Geneva in 1770; and a different edition in two volumes at London and Amsterdam in 1770-73. They include essays against the doctrine of the Trinity as commonly received, upon the Book of Daniel, and the Apocalypse. He rendered much service to a society for the translation of the New Testament into French (published 1726). Many of his theological writings are translated in E. Harwood's Miscellanies (London, 1774), with memoir; and seven essays are reprinted thence in Sparks's Collection of Essays and Tracts in Theology, vol. i. (Boston, 1823). Bibliography: J. Senebier, Histoire littéraire de Genève, Geneva, 1786; E. and É. Haag, La France protestante, ed. H. L. Bordier, i. 2, Paris, 1877; A. Gibert, Abauzit et sa Théologie, Strasburg, 1865. Abbadie, Jacques ABBADIE, ??´´b??´´dî´, JACQUES: Protestant apologist; b. at Nay (10 m. s. by e. of Pau), France, 1654 (?); d. at Marylebone, London, 1727. He studied in the French Reformed Church academies of Saumur and Sedan, and early showed much talent. On invitation of the elector of Brandenburg, he became pastor of the French Reformed congregation in Berlin in 1680; after the death of the elector (1688), he followed Marshal Schomberg to England; and became pastor of the French church in the Savoy, London, in 1689. In 1699 he was made dean of Killaloe, Ireland. His Traité de la vérité de la religion Chrétienne (vols. i. and ii., Rotterdam, 1684; vol. iii., 1689: Eng. transl., 2 vols., London, 1694), became one of the standard apologetic works in French literature. Of his other works, L'Art de se connaître soi-même (Rotterdam, 1692), giving an outline of his moral system, attracted much attention and was warmly defended by Malebranche. Bibliography: For full list of his writings, consult E. and E. Haag, La France protestante, i., s.v., Paris, 1846; for his life, the collection of his sermons, Amsterdam, 1760, iii., and D. C. A. Agnew, Protestant Exiles from France, pp. 223-228, Edinburgh, 1886; on his work, R. Elliott, The Consistent Protestant . . . with some observations on a treatise . . . by J. Abbadie, London, 1777, and M. Illaire, Étude sur J. Abbadie considéré comme prédicateur, Strasburg, 1858. Abbate; Abbe ABBATE; ABBÉ. See [12]Abbot. Abbess ABBESS: The title of the head of many monastic communities of women, even in some orders where the head of the monasteries for men does not bear the title of abbot. An abbess is commonly elected by the community. Cases of appointment by the pope on the nomination of the sovereign have occurred less frequently than in the case of abbots. By the ruling of the Council of Trent, only those are eligible who have been eight years professed and reached the age of forty, except, in exceptional circumstances, when a dispensation is granted by the pope. An absolute majority on a secret ballot is required. The election must be confirmed by the bishop (or, in certain cases of exemption, by the pope, or the head of the order), before the new abbess possesses full jurisdiction. A formal benediction, for which there is a form in the Pontificale Romanum, is also given by the bishop in many cases. The power thus assigned to the abbess is merely that requisite to rule her community, and in no sense a spiritual jurisdiction; she can not commute or dispense from vows, laws of the Church, or statutes of the order. She may inflict light punishments in the spirit of the rule; but the more severe ones are reserved to the ecclesiastical superior of the convent, who has jurisdiction in the forum externum. In general it may be said that the power of an abbess has been and is much more restricted than that of an abbot. For the peculiarly wide jurisdiction of abbesses over men as well as women in the order of Fontévraud (not without precedent in the Celtic monastic system), see [13]Fontevraud, Order of . See also [14]Abbot; [15]Monasticism. Abbey ABBEY: A monastic house under the rule of an abbot or an abbess. The name is strictly applicable only to the houses of those orders in which these titles are borne by the superiors. While in the East the free form of a group of scattered cells (known as a laura) continued side by side with the common dwelling of a cenobite community, the West developed a distinct style of its own in monastic architecture. The extant plan of the monastery of St. Gall (820) may be taken as typical of the construction of Western monasteries in the early Middle Ages. The center of the entire group of buildings was occupied by an open rectangular space, on the north side of which was the church, while on the other three sides ran the cloister or ambulatory, a vaulted passage open on the inner side, and serving both as a means of communication and as a place for exercise in bad weather. Connected with the cloister, on the ground floor, were the refectory and kitchen; the chapter-house, in which the reading and exposition of the rule and the chapter of faults took place; the calefactarium or winter dining-room; and the parleatorium or reception-room of outsiders. On the floor above, opening on a similar passage which connected with the choir of the church or the organ-loft, were the vestiarium, where the clothes were kept, the library, the dormitory, the infirmary, the rooms for the novices, and the apartments of the abbot, which were supposed to be accessible from outside without passing through the enclosure into which strangers were not allowed to penetrate. The kitchen, which lay within this enclosure, had in like manner a connection with the house for the reception of pilgrims, and with the various farm-buildings, which usually formed a separate quadrangle. The entire group of buildings was surrounded by a high, solid wall, which in some cases was fortified against the dangers of rude times by towers and strong gates. The monks' burying-ground was also within the enclosure. This system was preserved, with slight modifications, throughout the Middle Ages, the Cistercians adhering to it with especial closeness, as may be seen at Clairvaux and Maulbronn. Sometimes it was enriched by architectural decoration, as in the high-vaulted double refectories of St. Martin at Paris and of Maulbronn, or adorned with painting, as the world-famous "Last Supper" of Leonardo da Vinci in the refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie at Milan. In houses occupied by female religious the extensive farm-buildings were naturally lacking. The combination of hermit and community life among the Carthusians required a larger space, which was obtained by adding to the original quadrangle on the basis of the church a second larger one, commonly surrounded also by a cloister, with an open space or garden (containing a cemetery) in the center, and with individual dwellings for the monks around it. The mendicant orders strove for simplicity in building as in other things, and were forced by their situation in towns to a more restricted plan. The teaching orders added a wing or a separate house for their pupils. The Jesuits completely abandoned the traditional plan, and built themselves large palatial houses, while modern monasteries have little to differentiate them from other large institutions. For a more detailed treatment of the structural system of abbeys and monastic buildings, consult the exhaustive monograph by Venables in the Encyclopædia Britannica, s.v. Abbey. See [16]Monasticism. Bibliography: In general: DCA, ii. (1880) 1243-68 (gives a list of 1,481 monasteries founded before 814); DACL, i. 26-39; A. Ballu, Le Monastère de Tebessa, Paris, 1897 (valuable for detailed description of a typical abbey). Austria: G. Wolfsgruber, A. Hübl, and O. Schmidt, Abteien und Klöster in Österreich, Vienna, 1902. France: L. P. Hérard, Études archéologiques sur les abbayes de l'ancien diocèse de Paris, Paris, 1852; M. F. de Montrond, Dictionnaire des abbayes et monastères, ib. 1856; J. J. Bourassé, Abbayes et monastères; histoire, monuments, souvenirs et ruines, ib. 1869; E. P. M. Sauvage, Histoire litteraire des abbayes Normandes, ib. 1872; A. Peigne-Delacourt, Tableau des abbayes et des monastères d'hommes en France . . . . 1768, ib. 1875; J. M. Besse, Les premiers monastères de la Gaule, in Revue des questions historiques, Apr., 1902. Germany: O. Grote, Lexicon deutscher Stifte, Klöster, und Ordenshäuser, 5 parts, Osterwick,1874-80; H. G. Hasse, Geschichte der sachsischen Klöster in der Mark Meissen und Oberlausitz, Gotha, 1887; H. H. Koch, Die Karmelitenklöster der niederdeutschen Provinz, 13-16 Jahrhundert, Freiburg, 1889; H. Hauntinger, Süddeutsche Klöster vor 100 Jahren, Cologne, 1889; L. Sutter, Die Dominican-Klöster auf die Gebiets d. heutigen deutschen Schweitz im 13 Jahrhundert, Lucerne, 1893; A. Hohenegger, Das Kapuziner-Kloster zu Meran, Innsbruck, 1898; F. M. Herhagen, Die Kloster-Ruinen zu Himmerod in der Eifel ,Treves, 1900. Great Britain and Ireland: M. Archdall, Monasticon Hibernicon; . . . the Abbeys, Priories . . . in Ireland, London, 1785, ed. by P. F. Moran, Dublin, 1871; W. Beattie, Castles and Abbeys of England, 2 vols., London, 1851; M. E. C. Walcott, Minster and Abbey Ruins of the United Kingdom, ib. 1860; W. and M. Howitt, Ruined Abbeys and Castles of Great Britain, 2 ser., ib. 1862-64; Religious Houses of the United Kingdom, ib. 1887; T. G. Bonney, Cathedrals, Abbeys and Churches of England and Wales, 2 vols., ib. 1888-91 (revised, 1898); W. C. Lefroy, Ruined Abbeys of Yorkshire, ib. 1890; J. Timbs, Abbeys, Castles and Ancient Halls of England and Wales, 3 vols., ib. 1890; W. A. J. Archbold, Somerset Religious Houses, ib. 1892. Abbo of Fleury ABBO OF FLEURY, flu´´ri´: French abbot of the tenth century, one of the few men of that time who strove to cultivate learning and led the way for the later scholasticism; b. near Orléans; d. Nov. 13, 1004. He was brought up in the Benedictine abbey of Fleury (25 m. e.s.e. of Orléans); studied at Paris and Reims; in 985-987 was in England, on invitation of Archbishop Oswald of York, and taught in the school of the abbey of Ramsey; was chosen abbot of Fleury in 988, and brought the school there to a flourishing condition. He upheld the rights of his abbey against the Bishop of Orléans, and at the synod of St. Denis (995) took the part of the monks against the bishops. He twice represented King Robert the Pious as ambassador at Rome, and gained the favor of Pope Gregory V. He upheld strict monastic discipline; and an attempt to introduce reforms in the monastery of La Réole (in Gascony, 30 m. s.e. of Bordeaux), a dependency of Fleury, led to a mutiny by the monks in which he was fatally wounded. He wrote upon such diverse subjects as dialectics, astronomy, and canon law; and his extant letters are of much value for the history of the time. Bibliography: For his works, and his life by his pupil Aimoin, consult MPL, cxxxix.; for his Epistolae, Bouquet, Recueil; for his life, J. B. Pardiac, Histoire de St. Abbon, Paris, 1872. Abbot ABBOT: The head of one of the larger houses in the Benedictine and other older Western monastic orders. The term originated in the East, where it was frequently used as a title of respect for any monk (being derived from the Aramaic abba, "father"); but there it was replaced, as the title of the superior of a monastery, by archimandrite and other titles. In the Western orders founded before the end of the eleventh century the title is still in use. According to the present system, abbots are divided into secular and regular; the former are secular clerics who are incumbents of benefices originally bearing the title of abbey but since secularized; the latter are classified according as they have authority only over the members of their house, or over certain of the faithful, or enjoy a quasi-episcopal jurisdiction over a definite territory, or are merely titular abbots, their houses having fallen into decay. They are further divided according to the term of their office, which may be either for life or for three years. A special class known as mitered abbots have permission to wear episcopal insignia. The election of an abbot is commonly by vote of the professed brothers, in most cases only those in holy orders. The candidate must be twenty-five years of age, a professed brother of the order, and a priest. Actual jurisdiction is not conferred until his confirmation either by the bishop or, in the case of exempt abbeys, by the superior in the case, frequently the pope. His benediction is the next step, which takes place according to the office in the Pontificale Romanum, usually at the hands of the bishop of the diocese. He has the power to regulate the entire inner life of the abbey in accordance with the rule, and to require obedience from his subordinates; according to the rule of St. Benedict, however, abbots are required not to exercise their authority in an arbitrary manner, but to seek the counsel of their brethren. In many particulars a quasi-episcopal jurisdiction has in course of time been conceded to them. Since the eighth century they have been allowed to confer the tonsure and minor orders on their subjects, to bless their churches, cemeteries, sacred vessels, etc., to take rank as prelates, and, if generals exercising quasi-episcopal jurisdiction, to sit and vote in general councils. The practise of granting abbeys in commendam to deserving clerics, or even to laymen, led to the creation of a class of merely titular abbots, who had nothing of this character but the name and the revenues. This practise, which was the source of many abuses, was regulated by the Council of Trent. From it sprang the custom in France of Applying the title abbé to any prominent clergyman who might, according to the custom of the time, lay claim to such an appointment, and then to the secular clergy in general. A somewhat analogous custom existed in Italy, where many professional men, lawyers, doctors, etc., though laymen and even married men, retained some marks of the clerical character which had earlier distinguished the majority of scholars in their dress and in the title of abbate. In some Protestant countries the title of abbot still clung to the heads of institutions that had grown out of monasteries suppressed at the Reformation. See [17]Monasticism. Abbot, Ezra ABBOT, EZRA: Unitarian layman; b. at Jackson, Waldo County, Me., Apr. 28, 1819; d. at Cambridge, Mass., Mar. 21, 1884. He was fitted for college at Phillips Academy, Exeter, N. H., and was graduated at Bowdoin, 1840. He then taught in Maine and, after 1847, in Cambridge, Mass., also rendering service in the Harvard and Boston Athenæum libraries. In 1856 he was appointed assistant librarian of Harvard University, in 1871 he was university lecturer on the textual criticism of the New Testament, and in 1872 he became Bussey professor of New Testament criticism and interpretation in the Harvard Divinity School. From 1853 he was secretary of the American Oriental Society. He was one of the original members of the American New Testament Revision Company (1871), and in 1880 he aided in organizing the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis. He was a scholar of rare talents and attainments. He stood first and foremost among the textual critics of the Greek Testament in America; and for microscopic accuracy of biblical scholarship he had no superior in the world. On account of the extreme attention he paid to minute details, the number of his independent publications was small, and the results of his labors have gone into books of other writers, to which he was willing to contribute without regard to reward or adequate recognition. His Literature of the Doctrine of a Future Life, first published as an appendix to Alger's History of the Doctrine of a Future Life (Philadelphia, 1864), and afterward separately (New York, 1871), is a model of bibliographical accuracy and completeness, embracing more than 5,300 titles. He enriched Smith's Bible Dictionary (Am. ed., 1867-70) with careful bibliographical lists on the most important topics, besides silently correcting innumerable errors in references and in typography. His most valuable and independent labors, however, were devoted to textual criticism and are in part incorporated in Gregory's Prolegomena to the Ed. viii. critica major of Tischendorf's Greek Testament; the chapter De versibus (pp. 167-182) is by him, and he read the manuscript and proofs of the entire work. His services to the American Bible Revision Committee were invaluable. The critical papers which he prepared on disputed passages were uncommonly thorough, and had no small influence in determining the text finally accepted. His defense of the Johannean authorship of the fourth Gospel (The Authorship of the Fourth Gospel; External Evidences, Boston, 1880; reprinted by his successor in the Harvard Divinity School, J. H. Thayer, 1888) is an invaluable contribution to the solution of that question. Of his writings, besides those already adduced, may be mentioned: an edition of Orme's Memoir of the Controversy respecting the Three Heavenly Witnesses (New York, 1866); work upon G. R. Noyes's (posthumous) Translation of the New Testament from the Greek Text of Tischendorf (1869); work upon C. F. Hudson's Greek and English Concordance of the New Testament (1870); The Late Professor Tischendorf, in The Unitarian Review, Mar. 1875; On the Reading "an only begotten God," or "God only begotten," John i. 18, ib. June 1875; On the Reading "Church of God," Acts. xx. 28, in the Bibliotheca Sacra, Apr. 1876 (like the preceding, first privately printed for the American Bible Revision Committee); Recent Discussions of Romans ix. 5, an exhaustive article on the punctuation of this passage in Journal of the Society of Biblical Literature and Exegesis, June and Dec. 1883. The four articles mentioned last, together with that on the fourth Gospel and seventeen others, were published in 1888, under the editorship of J. H. Thayer. (Philip Schaff .) D. S. Schaff. Bibliography: Ezra Abbot, a memoir edited by S. J. Barrows, Cambridge, 1884; Andover Review, i. (1884) 554; Literary World, xv. (1884) 113. Abbot_George ABBOT, GEORGE: Archbishop of Canterbury; b. at Guildford (30 m. s.w. of London) Oct. 29, 1562; d. at Croydon (10 m. s. of London) Aug. 4, 1633. He studied at Balliol College, Oxford (B.A., 1582; probationer fellow, 1583; M.A., 1585; B.D., 1593; D.D., 1597), took orders in 1585, remained at Oxford as tutor, and became known as an able preacher and lecturer with strong Puritan sympathies. He was made master of University College 1597; dean of Winchester 1600; vice-chancellor of the university 1600, 1603, 1605; bishop of Coventry and Lichfield, 1609; bishop of London 1610; archbishop of Canterbury 1611. His learning and sincerity can not be questioned; but he was austere, narrow, almost a fanatic. His one great idea was to crush "popery," not only in England, but in all Europe; and popery to him meant every theological system except that of Calvin. To further his purposes abroad, he meddled persistently in the foreign policy of the State and chose arbitrary, high-handed, and cruel means to accomplish his ends at home. His principles allowed him to flatter the king, to help him generously in money matters, and to serve him in certain political undertakings, such as the restoration of episcopacy in Scotland in 1608-10. At other times his conscience compelled him to be just, and consequently he could not retain the royal favor. A Presbyterian at heart, he accepted episcopacy only from a love of order and sense of loyalty to constituted authority; and his appointment as archbishop was displeasing to the Anglican party, who had wanted [18]Launcelot Andrewes. His undiplomatic course incensed his opponents, and they pursued him relentlessly and cruelly. In 1621 he killed a gamekeeper while hunting. It was purely accidental, and he was deeply shocked and grieved; nevertheless, William Laud (his successor as archbishop and his personal enemy for years) and others seized upon the incident to annoy him and weaken his influence. Charles I., after his accession, favored Laud, who brought about Abbot's sequestration for a year (1627-28) because he had refused to sanction a sermon by Dr. Robert Sibthorp, vicar of Brackley, indorsing an unlawful attempt by the king to raise money, and showing little sympathy with Abbot's favorite policy of support to the German Protestants. After this his public acts were few. But with all his faults and disappointments he was faithful to duty as he understood it; and he was generous with money, charitable to the poor, and a patron of learning. He was a member of the Oxford New Testament Company for the version of 1611; and through him [19]Cyril Lucar presented the Codex Alexandrinus to Charles I. With other works, he published A Brief Description of the Whole World (London, 1599; 5th ed., 1664), a geography prepared for his pupils at Oxford, containing an interesting description of America; and An Exposition upon the Prophet Jonah (1600), which was reprinted in 1845 with a life by Grace Webster. Bibliography: T. Fuller, Church History, 6 parts, London, 1655 (ed. Brewer, 1845); Biographic Britannica, 6 vols., ib. 1747-66 (contains his life by W. Oldys, reprinted by Arthur Onslow, Guildford, 1777); W. F. Hook, Ecclesiastical Biography, 8 vols., London, 1845-52; idem, Lives of Archbishops, 12 vols., ib. 1860-72; S. R. Gardiner. History of England, 1603-1642, 10 vols., ib. 1883-84; DNB, i. 5. Abbot, Robert ABBOT, ROBERT: 1. Bishop of Salisbury; elder brother of George Abbot, Archbishop of Canterbury; b. at Guildford (30 m. s.w. of London) about 1560; d. at Salisbury Mar. 2, 1618. He studied at Balliol College, Oxford (fellow, 1581; M.A., 1582; D.D., 1597), and held several important livings. In 1609 he became master of Balliol; in 1612 regius professor of divinity at Oxford; in 1615 bishop of Salisbury. He was a learned man, an able preacher, and a prolific writer, holding in general the same views as his brother, but advocating them with more discretion and tact. His works include two treatises in reply to Bellarmine, A Mirror of Popish Subtilties (London, 1594), and Antichristi demonstratio (1603); and A Defence of the Reformed Catholic of Mr. William Perkins (3 parts, 1606-09), which won him royal favor and a promise of preferment. Bibliography: Thos. Fuller, Abel Redevivus, London, 1651 (ed. W. Nichols, 2 vols., 1867); idem, Church History, 6 pts., ib. 1655 (ed. by Brewer, 1845); A. Wood, Athena Oxonienses, ii. 224-227, ib. 1692; Biographia Britannica, 6 vols., ib. 1747-66 (life reprinted by A. Onslow, Guildford, 1777); Criminal Trials, illustrative of British History, ii. 366-367, ib. 1837 (deals with Abbot's part in the controversy over the Gunpowder Plot); DNB, i. 24. 2. Vicar of Cranbrook, Kent, 1616-43; b. probably, 1588; d. about 1657. He studied at Cambridge (college unknown), took the degree of M.A. there, and was incorporated at Oxford. Parliament having decided against pluralities of ecclesiastical offices, he resigned his Cranbrook vicarage in 1643, retaining that of Southwick, Hampshire, although much smaller. He was afterward rector of St. Austin's, London. He was a strong churchman; and engaged in many controversies, particularly with the Brownists, to whom he was not always fair. Many of his writings, as his Milk for Babes, or a Mother's Catechism for her Children (London, 1646), were very popular. Bibliography: A. Wood, Fasti, appended to Athena Oxonienses, London, 1691-92 (ed. P. Bliss, i. 323, Oxford, 1848); John Walker, Sufferings of the Clergy, ii. 183, London, 1714; B. Brook, Lives of the Puritans, iii. 182, ib. 1813; DNB, i. 25-26. Abbott, Edward ABBOTT, EDWARD: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Farmington, Me., July 15, 1841. He was educated at the University of the City of New York (B.A., 1860) and at Andover Theological Seminary (1860-62; did not graduate). In 1862-63 he was an agent of the United States Sanitary Commission, and in the latter year was ordained to the Congregational ministry. Two years later he founded the Stearns Chapel Congregational Church (now the Pilgrim Church) at Cambridge, Mass., of which he was pastor four years. In 1872-73 he was chaplain of the Massachusetts Senate. In 1879 he was ordered deacon in the Protestant Episcopal Church, and priested in 1880, his parish being that of St. James, Cambridge, which he still holds. He refused the proffered missionary bishopric of Japan in 1889. At various times he has been a member of the Board of Visitors of Wellesley College, trustee of the Society for the Relief of the Widows and Orphans of Clergymen of the Protestant Episcopal Church, director and president of the Associated Charities of Cambridge, vice-dean and dean of the Eastern Convocation of the Diocese of Massachusetts, president of the Cambridge Branch of the Indian Rights Association, member of the Missionary Council of the Protestant Episcopal Church, secretary of the Standing Committee of the Diocese of Massachusetts, member of the Provisional Committee on Church Work in Mexico, president of the Indian Industries League, president of the Cambridge City Mission, and has been active in other religious and philanthropic movements. His theological position is that of the Broad Church, sympathizing neither with the extreme of medievalism nor higher criticism. In 1869-78 he was associate editor of the Boston Congregationalist, and was joint proprietor and editor of the Boston Literary World from 1877 to 1888, again editing it in 1895-1903. His principal works are The Baby's Things: A Story in Verse (New York, 1871); Paragraph History of the United States (Boston, 1875); Paragraph History of the American Revolution (1876); Revolutionary Times (1876); History of Cambridge (1880); Phillips Brooks (Cambridge, 1900); and Meet for the Master's Use: An Allegory (1900). Abbott, Edwin Abbott ABBOTT, EDWIN ABBOTT: Church of England, author and educator, b. in London Dec. 20, 1838. He studied at St. John's College, Cambridge (B.A., 1861), where he was elected fellow in 1862. He was assistant master at King Edward's School, Birmingham, in 1862-64, and at Clifton College in the following year, while from 1865 to 1889 he was headmaster at City of London School. He was Hulsean lecturer at Cambridge in 1876 and select preacher at Oxford in the succeeding year. His works include Bible Lessons (London, 1872); Cambridge Sermons (1875); Through Nature to Christ (1877); Oxford Sermons (1879); the article Gospels in the 9th ed. of the Encyclopædia Britannica; The Common Tradition of the Synoptic Gospels (1884; in collaboration with W. G. Rushbrooke); The Good Voices, or A Child's Guide to the Bible, and Parables for Children (1875); Bacon and Essex (1877); Philochristus (1878); Onesimus (1882); Flatland, or A Romance of Many Dimensions (1884); Francis Bacon, an Account of his Life and Works (1885); The Kernel and the Husk (1886); The Anglican Career of Cardinal Newman (1892); The Spirit on the Waters (1897); St. Thomas of Canterbury (Edinburgh, 1898); Corrections of Mark Adopted by Matthew and Luke (1901); From Letter to Spirit (1903); Paradosis (1904); Johannine Vocabulary, A Comparison of the Words of the Fourth Gospel with Those of the Three (1905); and Silanus the Christian (1906). Abbott, Jacob ABBOTT, JACOB: American Congregationalist; b. at Hallowell, Me., Nov. 14, 1803; d. at Farmington, Me., Oct. 31, 1879. He was graduated at Bowdoin, 1820; studied theology at Andover, 1822-24; was tutor and professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Amherst, 1824-29; principal of the Mount Vernon School for Girls, Boston, 1829-33; ordained evangelist and pastor of the Eliot Congregational Church, Roxbury, Mass., 1834. In 1839 he removed to Farmington, Me., and spent the remainder of his life there and in New York devoted to literary work and teaching. He wrote many story-books which had a wide circulation, such as the Young Christian series (4 vols.; new edition of the Young Christian, with life, New York, 1882), the Rollo Books (14 vols.) and Rollo's Tour in Europe (10 vols.), the Franconia Stories (10 vols.), Science for the Young (4 vols.). Abbott, Justin Edwards ABBOTT, JUSTIN EDWARDS: Presbyterian; b. at Portsmouth, N. H., Dec. 25, 1853. He was educated at Dartmouth College (A.B., 1876) and Union Theological Seminary, from which he was graduated in 1879. He was ordained to the Congregational ministry in the following year, and after acting as stated supply at the Presbyterian church at Norwood, N. J., in 1881-82, went to India under the auspices of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Since that time he has been stationed at Bombay in the Maratha Mission, and has contributed a number of monographs to scientific periodicals on the epigraphy and numismatics of India, in addition to preparing religious works in Marathi for the use of Hindu converts. Abbott, Lyman ABBOTT, LYMAN: American Congregationalist; b. at Roxbury, Mass., Dec. 18, 1835. He was educated at New York University (B.A., 1853), and after practising law for a time was ordained a minister in the Congregational Church in 1860. He was pastor in Terre Haute, Ind., from 1860 to 1865, after which he held the pastorate of the New England Church, New York City, for four years, resigning to devote himself to literary work. In 1888 he succeeded Henry Ward Beecher as pastor of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, but resigned in 1898. He was secretary of the American Union Commission from 1865 to 1869, and later was a member of the New York Child Labor Committee and of the National Child Labor Committee. Among other societies, he is a member of the Bar Association of New York, New York State Historical Association, National Conference of Charities and Correction, Indian Rights Association, New York Association for the Blind, Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor, The Religious Education Association, American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, American Institute of Sacred Literature, American Peace Society, New York State Conference of Religion, and the Universal Peace Union. His theological position is that of a Congregationalist of the Liberal Evangelical type. In addition to editing the " Literary Record " of Harper's Magazine, he edited The Illustrated Christian Weekly (1871-76) and since 1876 The Christian Union (with Henry Ward Beecher till 1881; name changed to The Outlook, 1893). He has written Jesus of Nazareth (New York, 1869); Old Testament Shadows of New Testament Truth (1870); Illustrated Commentary on the New Testament (New York, 1875); Dictionary of Religious Knowledge (Boston, 1876; in collaboration with T. J. Conant); How to Study the Bible (1877); In Aid of Faith (New York, 1886); Evolution of Christianity (Boston, 1896); The Theology of an Evolutionist (1897); Christianity and Social Problems (1897); Life and Letters of Paul (1898); Problems of Life (New York, 1900); Life and Literature of the Ancient Hebrews (Boston, 1900); The Rights of Man (1901); Henry Ward Beecher (1903); The Other Room (New York, 1903); The Great Companion (1904); Christian Ministry (Boston, 1905); Personality of God (New York, 1905); and Industrial Problems (Philadelphia, 1905). Abbott, Thomas Kingsmill ABBOTT, THOMAS KINGSMILL: Church of Ireland, author and professor; b. at Dublin Mar. 26, 1829. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin (B.A., 1851; M.A., 1856; B.D., 1879), where he was elected fellow in 1854. From 1867 to 1872 he was professor of Moral Philosophy at Trinity College, of Biblical Greek from 1875 to 1888, and of Hebrew from 1879 to 1900, and has also been librarian of the College since 1887. He has been chairman of the Governors of Sir P. Dun's Hospital since 1897. In theology he is a Broad Churchman. His works include Sight and Touch, an Attempt to Disprove the Berkleyan Theory of Vision (Dublin, 1864); Par palimpsestorum Dublinensium (1880); Elements of Logic (1883); Evangeliorum versio Antihieronymiana (2 vols., 1884); Theory of the Tides (1888); Celtic Ornaments from the Book of Kells (1892); Notes on St. Paul's Epistles (1892); Essays, Chiefly on the Original Texts of the Old and New Testaments (Edinburgh, 1897 ); Catalogue of Manuscripts in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin (Dublin, 1900); and Catalogue of Incunabula in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin (1905), in addition to Kant's Theory of Ethics, a translation (1873). Abbreviators ABBREVIATORS: Officials of the papal chancery whose duty it is to prepare apostolic letters expedited through that office. The name is derived from the fact that part of their work consists in taking minutes of the petitions addressed to the Holy See and of the answers to be returned. Formerly they were divided into two classes, di parco maggiore and di parco minore, but the latter class has long been abolished. In the College of Abbreviators at the present time there are twelve clerics and seventeen laymen. Legislation of Feb. 13, 1904, defines their duties anew. The office dates from the early part of the fourteenth century, and has been filled by many distinguished prelates. In 1466 Paul II. abolished it because it had been corrupted, but it was restored by Sixtus IV. in 1471. There is also an abbreviatore di curia attached to the datary, who prepares minutes of papal letters addressed motu proprio to the entire Church. JOHN T. CREAGH. Abdias ABDIAS, ab´dî-as: Legendary first bishop of Babylon. Under the title, De historia certaminis apostolici there exists a collection of myths, legends, and traditions relating to the lives and works of the apostles, and pretending to be the Latin translation of the Greek translation of the Hebrew work of Abdias. Neither the book nor its author was known to Eusebius or to Jerome, nor do they find mention before Ordericus Vitalis (12th cent.). Bibliography: W. Lazinon, De historia certaminis apostolici, Paris, 1560, and often reprinted; Fabricius, Codex apocryphus, ii. (1st ed., 1703), and ii., iii. (2d ed., 1719); C. Oudin, Commentarius de scriptoribus ecclesiasticis, ii. 418-421, Leipsic, 1722; G. J. Voss, De historicis Græcis, p. 243, ib. 1838; J. A. Giles, Codex apocryphus Novi Testamenti, London, 1852; Migne, Troisième et dernière encyclopédie théologique, xxiv. (66 vols., Paris, 1855-66); S. C. Malan, Conflicts of the Holy Apostles . . . translated from an Ethiopic MS., London, 1871; DCB, i. 1-4. Abeel, David ABEEL, DAVID: Missionary; b. at New Brunswick, N. J., June 12, 1804; d. at Albany, N.Y., Sept. 4, 1846. He was graduated at the New Brunswick Theological Seminary in 1826; in 1829 he went to Canton as chaplain of the Seaman's Friend Society; and in 1831-33 he visited Java, Singapore, and Siam for the American Board. Returning to America by way of Europe in 1833, he aided in founding in England a society for promoting the education of women in the East. He went back to China in 1838 and founded the Amoy mission in 1842. He published a Journal of his first residence in China (New York, 1835), The Missionary Convention at Jerusalem (1838), Claims of the World to the Gospel (1838). Bibliography: G. R. Williamson, David Abeel, New York, 1849. Abel A´BEL ("Breath"): Second son of Adam and Eve and the brother of Cain, who, according to Gen. iv. 1-16, killed him from envy. Abelard ABELARD, ab´e-l??rd. I. Life. Student Life and Lecturer on Philosophy (§ 1). Heloise (§ 2). Monk and Abbot (§ 3). Second Condemnation for Heresy (§ 4). Last Days (§ 5). II. System. Philosophy (§ 1). Theology (§ 2). III. Writings. Abelard is a name used as the common designation of Pierre de Palais (Petrus Palatinus), the first notable representative of the dialectico-critical school of scholasticism founded by Anselm of Canterbury, but kept by him within the limits of the traditional orthodoxy. The meaning as well as the original form of the by-name is uncertain; it has been connected with the Latin bajulus, "teacher," and with the French abeille, "bee." The ending "-ard" is Frankish, and the entire name may be. I. Life: 1. Student Life and Lecturer on Philosophy. Abelard was born at Palais (Le Pallet), a village of Brittany, about 12 m. e. of Nantes, in 1079; d. in the Priory of St. Marcel, near Chalon-sur-Saône (36 m. n. of Mâcon), Apr. 21, 1142. He voluntarily renounced his rights as first-born son of the knight Berengar, lord of the village, and chose a life of study. His first teacher was Roscelin, the Nominalist, at Locmenach, Brittany, now Locmine, 80 m. s. w. of Brest. Then he wandered from one teacher to another until he came to Paris, where William of Champeaux, the Realist, was head of the cathedral school and attracting great crowds. Young as he was, Abelard was bold enough to set himself up as William's rival; he lectured, first at Melun (27 m. s.s.e. of Paris), then at Corbeil (7 miles nearer Paris), and, after a few years, in Paris itself at the cathedral school. His success was sufficient to make William jealous, and he compelled Abelard to leave the city. About 1113 he betook himself to Anselm of Laon at Laon (86 m. n.e. of Paris) to study theology, having hitherto occupied himself wholly with dialectics. His stay at Laon was short and was followed by a few years at Paris, where crowds flocked to hear his lectures and brought him a considerable income. 2. Heloise. This brilliant career was suddenly checked by the episode of Heloise, a young girl of eighteen, said to have been the natural daughter of a canon of Paris, living with her uncle, Canon Fulbert of Paris. Her education was confided to Abelard, and a passionate love sprang up between them. When Fulbert attempted to separate them, they fled toward Brittany, to the home of Abelard's sister, Dionysia, where Heloise bore a son, Astralabius. To satisfy Fulbert the lovers were married, Abelard asking that the marriage be kept secret out of regard for his ecclesiastical career. Fulbert disregarded this request and also treated his niece badly when she returned to his house. Abelard accordingly removed her to the Benedictine nunnery of Argenteuil (11 m. n.e. of Versailles), where she had been brought up, and where later she took the veil, a step which Fulbert interpreted as an attempt by her husband to get rid of her. In revenge he had Abelard attacked by night in his lodgings in Paris and mutilated, with the view probably of rendering him incapable of ever holding any ecclesiastical office. Abelard retired to the Benedictine abbey of St. Denis in Paris (probably about 1118), where he became a monk and lived undisturbed for a year or two, giving instruction in a secluded place (the "cella"). 3. Monk and Abbot. He received much sympathy and had many pupils. In 1121 a synod at Soissons pronounced heretical certain opinions expressed by him in a book on the Trinity (De unitate et trinitate divina; discovered by R. Stolzle and published, Freiburg, 1891). He was required to burn the book, and to retire to the monastery of St. Medard, near Soissons. In a short time, however, he was allowed to return to St. Denis, but was ill received there; and his assertion that the patron saint of the monastery and of France was not the same as Dionysius the Areopagite (see [20]Denis, Saint) made more trouble with the abbot, the monks, and the court. He fled, but was compelled to return and recant his opinion concerning St. Denis. Afterward he was allowed to retire to Champagne, near Nogent-sur-Seine (60 m. s.e. of Paris) where he built an oratory to the Trinity. Pupils again gathered about him and the original building of reeds and sedges was replaced by one which he called the Paraclete. But he was still under the jurisdiction of the abbot of St. Denis and suffered much annoyance. He accepted the election as abbot of the monastery of St. Gildas in Brittany (on the peninsula of Ruis, 10 m. s. of Vannes), and stayed there ten years, but he found it impossible to control the unruly monks and they tried to poison him. He found refuge from time to time at the Paraclete, which he had presented to Heloise after the nunnery of Argenteuil was closed (c. 1127); but his visits as spiritual director of the nuns who gathered about his wife caused scandal, and he had to give them up. Another attempt was made on his life; and once more he sought safety in flight, whither is not known. 4. Second Condemnation for Heresy. For several years his life is obscure; it is only known that in 1136 John of Salisbury heard him lecture in the school on the hill of St. Genevieve in Paris, and that during this period he wrote his autobiography, the Historia calamitatum. In 1141 a council, instigated mainly by [21]Bernard of Clairvaux, a man thoroughly antipathetic to Abelard, who had long considered his teaching wrong and his influence dangerous, met at Sens (61 m. s.s.e. of Paris). Certain extracts from Abelard's writings were pronounced erroneous and heretical (June 4, 1141). Abelard declined to defend himself; he appealed to the pope, and with his followers left the council. His former pupil, Cardinal Guido de Castello (afterward Pope Celestine II.), took his part at Rome; but Bernard wrote a letter denouncing Arnold of Brescia, another pupil, as one of the champions of Abelard, and thereby influenced the decision of Pope Innocent II., who condemned Abelard to silence, excommunicated his followers, ordered him and Arnold to retire to a monastery, and their books to be burned (July 16, 1141). Abelard wrote an apology defending himself against the action of the council, and sent a letter to Heloise maintaining his orthodoxy. He wrote a second apology submitting to the Church, and made peace with Bernard. 5. Last Days. By the friendly intervention of Peter the Venerable, Abbot of Cluny, permission was given him to spend the rest of his days at Cluny. He continued his studies, "read constantly, prayed often, gladly kept silence." But, broken by his sufferings and misfortunes, he did not live long there. With a view to his physical betterment Peter sent him to the neighboring priory of St. Marcel, at Chalons and there he died. His body was taken to the Paraclete; and on the death of Heloise (May 16, 1164) her body was placed in the same coffin. In 1817 their remains were removed to the cemetery of Pere Lachaise, Paris, and a monument was erected of stone from the ruins of the Paraclete. II. System: 1. Philosophy. Abelard belonged to the school of Anselm of Canterbury, but he did not follow him slavishly; and he was more critic than apologist of any system. He borrowed much from Augustine, Jerome, and older Church Fathers, as well as from Agobard, Claudius of Turin, Erigena, and Fredegis. His originality is seen in his doctrine of the Trinity and the Atonement and, as a philosopher, particularly in his teaching concerning the principia and his position toward the question of universalia. The latter is not quite clear; but it appears that he was neither nominalist, realist, nor conceptualist. William of Champeaux, the extreme realist, declared the universalia to be the very essence of all existence, and individuality only the product of incidental circumstances. To this Abelard objected that it led to pantheism; and he pursued his criticism so keenly that he forced William to modify his system. He rejected nominalism also, according to which the universalia are mere names, declaring that our conceptions must correspond to things which occasion them. This view is not conceptualism in so far as it does not in one-sided fashion emphasize the assertion that the general ideas are mere conceptus mentis, mere subjective ideas. 2. Theology. As theologian Abelard is noteworthy for his doctrine of revelation, his attitude toward belief on authority, and his conception of the relation between faith and knowledge. Concerning revelation he emphasizes the inner influence on the human spirit rather than its external manifestation, and does not limit inspiration to the writers of the Scriptures, but holds that it was imparted also to the Greek and Roman philosophers and to the Indian Brahmans. He teaches that the Scriptures are the result of the cooperation of the Spirit of God with the human writers, recognizes degrees of inspiration, and admits that prophets and apostles may make mistakes. He does not hesitate to disclose the contradictions in tradition, and distinguishes like a good Protestant between the authority of the Scriptures and that of the Fathers. Faith means to him a belief in things not susceptible to sense which can be grounded on rational demonstration or satisfactory authority. He opposes the compulsion of authority, will have free discussion of religious things, and everywhere follows his own conviction; but he sets narrow limits to what can be known. An adequate knowledge of the unity and trinity of God he declares impossible, as well as a scientific proof that shall compel belief in the existence of God and immortality. Here he asserts merely a possibility of belief. He condemns the acceptance of formulas of belief without knowing what they mean, and will have no one required to believe anything contrary to reason; he found nothing of the kind himself in the Scriptures or the teaching of the Church, and does not mean to exclude the supernatural. The doctrine of the Trinity he always treats in connection with the divine attributes; and in spite of all precautions the Trinity always becomes in his thought one of the attributes. He qualifies omnipotence by teaching that God does everything which he can, and therefore he could not do more than he has done. He can not prevent evil, but is able only to permit it and to turn it to good. As for his ethics, he teaches that moral good and ill inhere not in the act but in the motive. The evil propensity is not sin; it is the poena merely, and not the culpa, which has passed from Adam upon all. His theory of the Atonement is moral. The aim of the incarnation and sufferings of Christ was to move men to love by this highest revelation of the divine love. The love thus awakened frees from the bondage of sin, enables to fulfil the law, and impels to do the will of God, no longer in fear, but in the freedom of the sons of God. By law he understands the natural law which Christ taught and fulfilled, giving thereby the highest example. By his love, faithful to death, Christ has won merit with God; and because of this merit God forgives those who enter into communion with Christ and enables them to fulfil the law. It is in personal communion with Christ, therefore, that the real Atonement consists. Only such as let themselves be impressed with the love of Christ enter into this communion. By the curse of the law from which Christ frees, Abelard understands the Mosaic religion with its hard punishments. Inasmuch as Christ made an end of the Mosaic religion, he abolished its punishments also. III. Writings: A practically complete edition of the works of Abelard (including certain writings which are spurious or of doubtful origin) was furnished by Victor Cousin in the Ouvrages inédits d'Abélard (Paris, 1836) and Petri Abelardi opera nunc primum in unum collecta (2 vols., 1849-59); the Opera, from the edition of A. Duchesne and F. Amboise (Paris, 1616), with Opuscula published later, are in MPL, clxxviii. (lacks the Sic et non, that brilliant piece of skeptical writing). Particular works have been published as follows: the Theologia Christiana and the Hexameron, ed. Martène and Durand, in the Thesaurus novus anecdotorum, v. (Paris, 1717); the Ethica (Scito te ipsum), ed. B. Pez, in the Thesaurus anecdotorum novissimus, iii. (1721); the Dialogus and the Epitome or Sententiæ, ed. F. H. Rheinwald (Berlin, 1831,1835); the Sic et non, ed. T. Henke and G. S. Lindenkohl (Marburg, 1851; incomplete in Cousin's edition, 1836); the Historia calamitatum, ed. Orelli (Zurich, 1841); the Planctus virginum Israel super filia Jeptæ Galaditæ, ed. W. Meyer and W. Brambach (Munich, 1886); the Hymnarius paraclitensis, ed. G. M. Dreves (Paris, 1891); the Tractatus de unitate et trinitate divina, ed. R. Stölzle (Freiburg, 1891). The letters have been often published in the original Latin and in translation (Latin, ed. R. Rawlinson, London, 1718; Eng., ed. H. Mills, London, 1850; ed. H. Morton, New York, 1901; Germ., with the Historia calamitatum, ed. P. Baumgärtner, Reclam, Leipsic, 1894; French, with Latin text, ed. Grérard, Paris, 1885); and selections will be found in some of the works cited in the bibliography below. Bibliography: J. Berington, . . . Lives of Abeillard and Heloisa, with . . . Their Letters, 2d ed., Birmingham, 1788; C. de Rémusat, Abélard, 2 vols., Paris, 1845 (the standard biography); J. L. Jacobi, Abelärd and Heloise, Berlin, 1850; F. P. G. Guisot, Lettres d'Abailard et d'Héloise, précédées d'un essai historique, Paris, 1839, 1853; C. Prantel, Geschichte der Logik im Abendlande, ii. 160-204, Leipsic, 1861; O. W. Wight, Abélard and Heloise, New York, 1861; E. Bonnier, Abélard et St. Bernard, Paris, 1862; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, v. 321-326, 399-435; A. Stöckl, Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters, i. 218-272, Mainz, 1864; H. Reuter, Geschichte der religiösen Aufklärung im Mittelalter, i. 183-259, Berlin, 1875; E. Vacaudard. Abélard et sa lutte avec St. Bernard, sa doctrine, sa méthode, Paris, 1881; S. M. Deutsch, Peter Abälard, Leipsic, 1883; A. S. Richardson, Abélard and Heloise, with a Selection of their Letters, New York, 1884; J. G. Compayré, Abelard and the . . . History of Universities, London, 1893; A. Hausrath, Peter Abälard Leipsic, 1895; Jos. McCabe, Peter Abélard, New York, 1901 (an excellent book); Hauck, KD, iv. 409 sqq. Abelites ABELITES, ê´bel-??its (ABELIANS, ABELONIANS): A sect mentioned by Augustine (Haer., lxxxvii.; cf. Prædestinatus, i. 87) as formerly living in the neighborhood of Hippo, but already extinct when he wrote. Their name was derived from Abel, the son of Adam. Each man took a wife, but refrained from conjugal relations, and each pair adopted a boy and a girl who inherited the property of their foster-parents on condition of living together in like manner in mature life. They were probably the remnant of a Gnostic sect, tinged perhaps by Manichean influences. [The name grew out of a wide-spread belief that Abel though married had lived a life of continence.] G. Krüger. Bibliography: C. W. F. Walch, Entwurf einer vollständigen Historie der Ketzereien, i. 607-608, Leipsic, 1762. Abelli, Louis ABELLI, ?-bel´li, LOUIS: French Roman Catholic; b. 1603; d. at Paris Oct. 4, 1691. He was made bishop of Rhodez, southern France, in 1664, but resigned three years later and retired to the monastery of St. Lazare in Paris. He was a vehement opponent of Jansenism. His numerous works include: Medulla theologica (2 vols., Paris, 1651), a treatise on dogmatics; La Tradition de l'Église touchant la dévotion envers la Sainte Vierge (1652); Vie de St. Vincent de Paul (1664); De l'obéissance et soumission due au Pape (ed. Cheruel, 1870); and two volumes of meditations, La Couronne de l'année chrétienne (1657). Aben Ezra ABEN EZRA (Abraham ben Meir ibn Ezra): Jewish poet, grammarian, and commentator; b. in Toledo, Spain, 1092; d. Jan. 23, 1167. He left Toledo about 1138 and is known to have visited Bagdad, Rome (1140), Mantua and Lucca (1145), Dreux (45 m. w.s.w. of Paris; 1155-57), and London (1158); in 1166 he was in southern France. His poems show a mastery of the metrical art but have no inspiration, his grammatical works are not logically arranged, and his commentaries lack religious feeling. His exegetical principle was to follow the grammatical sense rather than the allegorical method of the Church; yet he resorts to figurative interpretation when the literal meaning is repugnant to reason. His critical insight is shown by hints that the Pentateuch and Isaiah contain interpolations (cf. H. Holzinger, Einleitung in den Hexateuch, Freiburg, 1893, pp. 28 sqq.; J. Fürst, Der Kanon des Alten Testaments, Leipsic, 1868, p. 16), though he lacked the courage to say so openly. His chief importance is that he made the grammatical and religio-philosophical works of the Spanish Jews, written in Arabic, known outside of Spain. His commentaries (on the Pentateuch, Isaiah, the Minor Prophets, Job, Psalms, the five Megilloth, and Daniel) are usually found in rabbinic Bibles. His introduction to the Pentateuch has been edited by W. Bacher (Vienna, 1876); the commentary on Isaiah, with Eng. trans. and two volumes of Essays on the Writings of Abraham ibn Ezra, by M. Friedländer (4 vols., London, 1873-77). His poems have been published by D. Rosin (4 parts, Breslau, 1885-91) and J. Egers (Berlin, 1886). (G. Dalman.) Bibliography: L. Zunz, Die synagogale Poesie des Mittelalters, Berlin, 1855; S. I. Kämpf, Nichtandalusische Poesie andalusischer Dichter, i. 213-240, Prague, 1858; M. Eisler, Vorlesungen über die jüdische Philosophie des Mittelalters, i. 113-120, Vienna, 1876; W. Bacher, Abraham ibn Ezra als Grammatiker, Strasburg, 1882; J. S. Spiegler, Geschichte der Philosophie des Judentums, pp. 263-265, Leipsic, 1890; H. Grätz, Geschichte der Juden, vi. (1894) 184-191, 289-306, 733-735; iii. (1897) 131-140, Eng. transl., London, 1891-98; J. Winter and A. Wünsche, Die jüdische Litteratur. ii. 184-191, 289-306, Berlin, 1894. Abercius ABERCIUS. See [22]Avercius. Abercrombie ABERCROMBIE, ab´er-crum-bi, JOHN: Scotch physician and writer on metaphysics; b. at Aberdeen Oct. 10, 1780; d. at Edinburgh Nov. 14, 1844. He studied medicine at Edinburgh and London, and settled in the former city as practising physician in 1804. He became one of the foremost medical men of Scotland, but is best known as the author of Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers and the Investigation of Truth (Edinburgh, 1830) and The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings (London, 1833), works which he wrote from a belief that his knowledge of nervous diseases fitted him to discuss mental phenomena. The books long enjoyed great popularity, but were not written in the real spirit of a truth-seeker, have little originality, and are now superseded. A volume of Essays and Tracts, mainly on religious subjects, was published posthumously (Edinburgh, 1847). Bibliography: W. Anderson, Scottish Nation, i. 2, Edinburgh, 1864; DNB, i. 37-38. Abernethy John ABERNETHY, ab´er-neth-i, JOHN: Irish Presbyterian; b. at Brigh, County Tyrone, Oct.19, 1680; d. at Dublin Dec., 1740. He studied at Glasgow (M.A.) and Edinburgh, and became minister of the Presbyterian congregation at Antrim in 1703. In 1717, following his own judgment and desire, he chose to remain at Antrim, although the synod wished him to accept a call from a Dublin congregation. To disregard an appointment of the synod was an unheard-of act for the time, and the Irish Church was split into two parties, the "Subscribers" and "Non-Subscribers," Abernethy being at the head of the latter. The Non-Subscribers were cut off from the Church in 1726. From 1730 till his death he was minister of the Wood Street Church, Dublin. Here he again showed himself in advance of his time by opposing the Test Act and "all laws that, upon account of mere differences of religious opinions and forms of worship, excluded men of integrity and ability from serving their country." His published works are: Discourses on the Being and Perfections of God (2 vols., London, 1740-43); Sermons (4 vols., 1748-51), with life by James Duchal; Tracts and Sermons (1751). Bibliography: J. S. Reid, Presbyterian Church in Ireland, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1834-37; DNB., i. 48-49. Abert Friedrich Philip Von ABERT, ??´bert, FRIEDRICH PHILIP VON: Roman Catholic archbishop of Bamberg; b. at Mümnerstadt (35 m. n.n.e. of Würzburg) May 1, 1852. He was educated at the Passau Lyceum (1870-71) and the University of Würzburg (Ph.D., 1875), and from 1875 to 1881 was active as a parish priest. In the latter year he was appointed an assistant at the episcopal clerical seminary at Würzburg, and four years later was made professor of dogmatics at the Royal Lyceum, Regensburg. In 1890 he was appointed professor of dogmatics and symbolics at Würzburg, where he was dean in 1894-95,1899-1900, and rector in 1900-01. In 1905 he was consecrated archbishop of Bamberg. He has written Einheit des Seins in Christus nach der Lehre des heiligen Thomas von Aquin (Regensburg, 1889); Von den göttlichen Eigenschaften und von der Seligkeit, zwei dem heiligen Thomas von Aquin zugeschriebene Abhandlungen (Würzburg, 1893); Bibliotheca Thomistica (1895); and Das Wesen des Christentums nach Thomas von Aquin (1901). Abgar ABGAR (Lat. Abgarus): Name (or title) of eight of the kings (toparchs) of Osrhoene who reigned at Edessa for a period of three centuries and a half ending in 217. The fifteenth of these kings, Abgar V., Uchomo ("the black," 9-46 A.D.), is noteworthy for an alleged correspondence with Jesus, first mentioned by Eusebius (Hist. eccl., i. 13), who states that Abgar, suffering sorely in body and having heard of the cures of Jesus, sent him a letter professing belief in his divinity and asking him to come to Edessa and help him. Jesus wrote in reply that he must remain in Palestine, but that after his ascension he would send one of his disciples who would heal the king and bring life to him and his people. Both letters Eusebius gives in literal translation from a Syriac document which he had found in the archives of Edessa. On the same authority he adds that after the ascension the Apostle Thomas sent Thaddaeus, one of the seventy, to Edessa and that, with attendant miracles, he fulfilled the promise of Jesus in the year 340 (of the Seleucidan era = 29 A.D.). The Doctrina Addæi (Addæus = Thaddæus; edited and translated by G. Phillips, London, 1876), of the second half of the fourth century, makes Jesus reply by an oral message instead of a letter, and adds that the messenger of Abgar was a painter and made and carried back with him to Edessa a portrait of Jesus. Moses of Chorene (c. 470) repeats the story (Hist. Armeniaca, ii. 29-32), with additions, including a correspondence between Abgar and Tiberius, Narses of Assyria, and Ardashes of Persia, in which the "king of the Armenians" appears as champion of Christianity; the portrait, he says, was still in Edessa. Gross anachronisms stamp the story as wholly unhistorical. Pope Gelasius I. and a Roman synod about 495 pronounced the alleged correspondence with Jesus apocryphal. A few Roman Catholic scholars have tried to defend its genuineness (e.g. Tillemont, Mémoires, i., Brussels, 1706, pp. 990-997; Welte, in TQ, Tübingen, 1842, pp. 335-365), but Protestants have generally rejected it. See [23]Jesus Christ, Pictures and Images of . (K. Schmidt.) Bibliography: R. A. Lipsius, Die edessenische Abgarsage, Brunswick, 1880; K. C. A. Matthes, Die edessenische Abgarsage, Leipsic, 1882; ANF, viii. 702 sqq.; L. J. Tixeront, Les origines de l'eglise d'Edesse et la l'gende d'Abgar, Paris, 1888; Lipsius and Bonnet, Acts apostolorum apocrypha, vol. i., Leipsic, 1891; W. T. Winghille, The Letter from Jesus Christ to Abgarus and the Letter of Abgarus to Christ, 1891; Harnack, Litteratur, i. 533-540, ib. 1893; TU, new ser. iii., 1899, 102-196. Abhedananda ABHEDANANDA, ??-bed´´?-nan-d??´, SWAMI: Hindu leader of the Vedanta propaganda in America; b. at Calcutta Nov. 21, 1866. He was educated at Calcutta University, and after being professor of Hindu philosophy in India went to London in 1896 to lecture on the Vedanta. In the following year he went to New York, where he has since remained, succeeding Swami Vivekananda as head of the Vedanta Society in America. Theologically he belongs to the pantheistic and universalistic Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. His works include, in addition to numerous single lectures, Reincarnation (New York, 1899); Spiritual Unfoldment (1901); Philosophy of Work (1902); How to be a Yogi (1902); Divine Heritage of Man (1903); Self-Knowledge (Atma-Jnana) (1905); India and her People (1906); and an edition of The Sayings of Sri Ramakrishna (1903). Abiathar ABIATHAR. See [24]Ahimelech. Abijah ABIJAH, a-bai´ja (called Abijam in I Kings xiv. 31, xv. 1, 7, 8): Second king of Judah, son of Rehoboam, and, on his mother's side, probably a great-grandson of David, since his mother Maachah is called a daughter of Absalom (II Chron. xi. 20; "Abishalom," in I Kings xv. 2). In I Kings xv. 10, however, Maachah, the daughter of Abishalom, appears as mother of Asa; and in II Chron. xiii. 2 the mother of Abijah is called Michaiah, the daughter of Uriel. "Michaiah" here is probably a scribal error for "Maachah," the addition "daughter of Abishalom" in I Kings xv. 10 probably a copyist's mistake; and it is possible that Uriel was son-in-law of Absalom, and Maachah, therefore, his granddaughter. Abijah reigned three years (957-955 B.C. or, according to Kamphausen, 920-918). The Book of Kings says that he walked in all the sins of his father, which probably means that he allowed idolatrous worship, and adds that the war between Judah and Israel, which followed the division, continued during his reign. According to II Chronicles xiii., Abijah gained some advantages in the war, which, though soon lost, were not unimportant. He may have been in alliance with Tabrimon of Damascus (I Kings xv. 18-19). His history is contained in I Kings xiv. 31-xv. 8, and II Chron. xiii. 1-22. (W. Lotz.) According to the more correct chronology Abijah reigned 918-915 B.C. (J. F. M.) Bibliography: See under [25]Ahab. Abilene ABILENE, ab´´i-lî´ne: A district mentioned in Luke iii. 1 as being under the rule of the tetrarch Lysanias. It is evidently connected with a town Abila, and Josephus (Ant., XVIII. vi. 10, XIX. v. 1, XX. vii. 1; War, II. xi. 5, xii. 8) indicates that the town in question was situated on the southern Lebanon. Old itineraries (Itinerarium Antonini, ed. Wesseling, Amsterdam, 1735, p. 198; Tabula Peutingeriana, ed. Miller, Ravensburg, 1887, x. 3) mention an Abila, eighteen Roman miles from Damascus, on the road to Heliopolis (Baalbek), the modem Suk Wady Barada, on the south bank of the river, in a fertile and luxuriant opening surrounded by precipitous cliffs. Remains of an ancient city are found on both banks of the river, and the identification is confirmed by an inscription (CIL, iii. 199) stating that the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus repaired the road, which had been damaged by the river, "at the expense of the Abilenians." The tomb of Habil (Abel, who is said to have been buried here by Cain), which is shown in the neighborhood, may also preserve a reminiscence of the ancient name, Abila. It has generally been assumed that the Lysanias intended by Luke was Lysanias, son of Ptolemy who ruled Iturea 40-36 B.C. (Josephus, Ant., XIV. xiii. 3; War, I. xiii. 1). If this be correct, Luke, is in error, since he makes Lysanias tetrarch of Abilene in 28-29 A.D. It may be noted, however, that the capital of Iturea was Chalcis, not Abila; and Josephus does not include the territory of Chalcis in the tetrarchy of Lysanias. Furthermore, there is an inscription (CIG, 4521) of a certain Nymphaios, "the freedman of the tetrarch Lysanias," the date of which must be between 14 and 29 A.D. Hence it is not improbable that there was an earlier and a later Lysanias and that the latter is the one who is mentioned as tetrarch of Abilene. (H. Guthe.) Bibliography: A. Reland, Palæstina, 527 sqq., Utrecht, 1714; Robinson, Later Researches, pp. 479-484; J. L. Porter, Giant Cities of Bashan, i. 261, New York, 1871; C. R. Conder, Tent-Work in Palestine, p. 127, London, 1880; ZDP, viii. (1885) 40; Ebers and Guthe, Palästina in Bild und Wort, i. 456-460, Stuttgart, 1887; Schürer, Geschichte, i. 716 sqq., Eng. transl., I. ii. 335 sqq.; W. H. Waddington, Inscriptions Grecques et Latines de la Syrie, Paris, 1870. Abishai ABISHAI, ??-bish´?-?i: Elder brother of Joab and Asahel (I Chron. ii. 16); like them the son of Zeruiah, David's sister (or half-sister cf. II Sam. xvii. 25, where Zeruiah's sister Abigail is called daughter of Nahash; not of Jesse). His father is not mentioned. He was David's companion in his time of persecution (I Sam. xxvi. 6 sqq.), saved his life (II Sam. xxi. 17), and served him faithfully to the end of his reign. He was the first among the "thirty" in the catalogue of David's mighty men (xxiii. 18-19, reading "thirty" instead of "three;" cf. Wellhausen, Der Text der Bücher Samuelis, Göttingen, 1871, and Klostermann's commentary on Samuel ad loc.). While Joab was commander-in-chief Abishai often commanded a division of the army (against the Ammonites, II Sam. x. 10-14; against Edom, I Chron. xviii. 12; against Absalom, II Sam. xviii. 2; against Sheba, II Sam. xx. 6). He was valiant and true, but severe and passionate toward David's enemies (cf. I Sam. xxvi. 8; II Sam. iii. 30, xvi. 9, xix. 21). (C. von Orelli.) Abjuration ABJURATION: A formal renunciation of heresy required of converts to the Roman Catholic Church. The First and Second Councils of Nicæa insisted on a written abjuration from those who, after having fallen into the religious errors of the time, desired to be restored to membership in the Church. The necessity of abjuration is reaffirmed in the Decree of Gratian and in the Decretals of Gregory IX., and found an important place in the procedure of the Inquisition. This tribunal distinguished four kinds of abjuration, according as the heresy to be renounced was a matter of notoriety or of varying degrees of suspicion,--de formali, de levi, de vehementi, de violento. Abjuration of notorious heresy or of very strongly suspected heretical inclinations took the form of a public solemn ceremony. In modern times the Roman Inquisition requires that a diligent investigation shall be conducted regarding the baptism of persons seeking admission into the Church. If it is ascertained that baptism has not been received, no abjuration is demanded; if a previous baptism was valid, or was of doubtful validity, abjuration and profession of faith are necessary preliminaries to reception into the Church. A convert under fourteen years of age is in no case bound to abjure. The act of abjuration is attended with little formality,--all that is necessary is that it be done in the presence of the parish priest and witnesses, or even without witnesses if the fact can otherwise be proved. The modern formula of abjuration found in Roman Catholic rituals is really more in the nature of a profession of faith, the only passages savoring of formal renunciation of heresy being the following, "With sincere heart and unfeigned faith I detest and abjure every error, heresy, and sect opposed to the Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic, Roman Church. I reject and condemn all that she rejects and condemns." John T. Creagh. Ablon ABLON: Village on the left bank of the Seine, about 9 m. s. of Paris, noteworthy as the place where public worship was first conceded to the Protestants of Paris. Notwithstanding the edict of Nantes (May 2, 1598), the Protestants of the capital were not allowed a church within the city itself, but had to travel to Ablon. In 1602 they petitioned the King for a place nearer the city, alleging that during the winter forty children had died from being carried so far for baptism. In 1606 their petition was granted and the church was removed to Charenton, at the junction of the Seine and Marne, six or seven miles nearer the city. The toilsome and sometimes dangerous "expeditions" to Ablon are often spoken of by Sully and Casaubon. Ablutions ABLUTIONS OF THE MASS: The rubrics of the mass prescribe that immediately after communion the celebrant shall purify the chalice with wine, and his fingers with wine and water. These ablutions, as they are called, are drunk by the priest unless he is obliged to celebrate a second time on the same day, in which case he pours the wine and water of the last ablution into a special vessel, kept for the purpose near the tabernacle, and consumes them at the next mass. Pope Pius V. in 1570 introduced into his Missal the rubrics on this matter as they exist to-day. The first clear references to the ablutions as practised to-day are found in the eleventh century. Ablution of the hands is also prescribed before mass, before the canon, and after the distribution of communion outside of mass. John T. Creagh. Abner ABNER. See [26]Ish-bosheth. Abodah Zarah ABODAH ZARAH. See [27]Talmud. Abot (Pirke Abot) ABOT (PIRKE ABOT). See [28]Talmud. Abot de-Rabbi Nathan ABOT de-RABBI NATHAN. See [29]Talmud. Abravaneel (Abravaneel, Abarbanul), Isaac ABRABANEL, ??-br??´´b??-nel´ (ABRAVANEEL, ABARBANEL), ISAAC: The last Jewish exegete of importance; b. of distinguished family, which boasted of Davidic descent, at Lisbon 1437; d. in Venice 1509. He was treasurer of Alfonso V. of Portugal, but was compelled to flee the country under his successor, John II., in 1483. He lived in Spain until the Jews were expelled thence by Ferdinand and Isabella (1492), when he went to Naples. In both countries he rendered important services to the government as financier. From 1496 till 1503 he lived at Monopoli in Apulia, southern Italy, occupied with literary work, and later settled in Venice. He wrote commentaries on the Pentateuch (Venice, 1579) and on the earlier and the later Prophets (Pesaro, 1520 [?]) which show little originality, and are valuable chiefly for the extracts he makes from his predecessors. In his Messianic treatises (Yeshuot meshihho, "The Salvation of his Anointed," Carlsruhe, 1828; Mayene ha-yeshuah, "Sources of Salvation," Ferrara, 1551; Mashmia Yeshuah, "Proclaiming Salvation," Salonica, 1526) he criticizes Christian interpretations of prophecy, but with no great insight. His religio-philosophical writings are less important. In the interest of Jewish orthodoxy he defends the creation of the world from nothing (in Mifalot Elohim, "Works of God," Venice, 1592) advocates the thirteen articles of faith of Maimonides (in Rosh amanah, "The Pinnacle of Faith," Constantinople, 1505). His eschatological computations made the year of salvation due in 1503. (G. Dalman.) Abrabanel held a place of some importance in the history of Christian exegesis due to the facts that he appreciated and quoted freely the earlier Christian exegetes and that many of his own writings were in turn condensed and translated by Christian scholars of the next two centuries (Alting, Buddæus, the younger Buxtorf, Carpzov, and others). J. F. M. Bibliography: J. H. Majus, Vita Don Isaac Abrabanielis, Giessen (?), 1707 (?); C. F. Bischoff, Dissertatio . . . de . . . vita atque scriptis Isaaci Abrabanielis, Altdorf, 1708; M. Schwab, Abravanel et son époque, Paris, 1865; JQR, i. (1888) 37-52; H. Grætz, Geschichte der Juden, viii. 324-334, ix. 5-7, ii. 208, 213, Eng. transl., London, 1891-98; Winter and Wunsche, Geschichte der judischen Litteratur, ii. 333, 339, 443, 451, 791-792, Berlin, 1894; D. Cassel, Judische Geschichte und Litteràtur, Leipsic, 1879, pp. 321 sqq., 427, 425 sqq. Abraham ABRAHAM, ê´bra-ham or a´bra-ham. Sources of his Biography Analyzed (§ 1). Historicity of Abraham Defended (§ 2). Historicity of the Patriarchs Defended (§ 3). Impossibility of Fully Reconstructing the Sources (§ 4). This article will be limited to an attempt to establish the credibility of the tradition which represents Abraham as the first ancestor of the Israelites, against the arguments of those who doubt or deny the existence of the patriarch as an historical personage. 1. Sources of His Biography Analyzed. Knowledge of Abraham's history must be derived exclusively from Gen. xi. 26-xxvi. 10. Other accounts--Josephus, Ant., I. vi. 5-xvii; Philo, De Abrahamo, De migratione Abrahami, De congressu quærendæ eruditionis causa, De profugis, Quis rerum divinarum hæres sit; the haggadic narratives (collected by B. Beer, Leben Abrahams nach Auffassung der judischen Sage, Leipsic, 1859); the notices in Eusebius, Præparatio evangelica, ix. 16-20--are all excluded by their late origin. Many maintain that the Biblical narrative is also discredited for the same reason. It is true that the beginnings of the patriarchal history cannot be dated later than about 1900 B.C., and even if Genesis was written by Moses (c. 1300 B.C.) its account is from 500 to 600 years later than the life of Abraham. If, as so many believe, the present Genesis originated between 500 and 400 B.C., a period of from 1,400 to 1,500 years intervenes. Whenever it may have been written, however, the Book of Genesis presents the conception of the life of Abraham current in the pious circles of Israel at the time of composition; and this conception may be shown to have been handed down from earlier periods. The narrative is a piecing together of the sources (E, J, and P) without essential additions by R. For the present purpose it matters little when P originated, since this portion of the narrative is a mere sketch, barren of details. It is generally assumed that E and J originated between the time of Jehoshaphat and Uzziah (850-750 B.C.); others think it more probable that E belongs to the time of the Judges (c. 1100 B.C.), J to that of David (c. 1000 B.C.). If the latter assumption be correct, a combination of E and J (which are supplementary rather than contradictory) gives what passed for the history of Abraham at the end of the period of the Judges and at the beginning of the monarchy. The Book of Deuteronomy contains passages which imply facts and conceptions written down in EJ (cf. vi. 3, 10, 18; vii. 7, 8, 12, 13; viii. 1, 18; ix. 5, 27; xiii. 18; xix. 8; xxvi. 3, 7, 15). If, then, Deuteronomy be Mosaic, the history of Abraham is traced back to the Mosaic time. It can not be the product of the inventive fancy of Israel during the sojourn in Egypt; for during the first half of the sojourn the patriarchal period was too near to admit of fancies, and during the oppression there was no thought of migrating to Canaan and settling there. It is thus quite improbable that fancy transformed wishes into promises once given to the fathers. 2. Historicity of Abraham Defended. Most of the critics ascribe Deuteronomy to the last century of the monarchy of Judah. The narrative of EJ is, then, the oldest written attestation of Abraham; and the question arises, how far can this narrative be accepted as historical? If it is not historical the origin of its conception of Abraham must be explained. It has been suggested that Abraham was a deity adored in antiquity and afterward humanized (Dozy, Nöldeke, E. Meyer). But in all Semitic literature no god named Abraham is found; and no indication exists that Abraham was ever conceived of in Israel as a deity or higher being. More plausible is the view that Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were ethnographic collective names (Wellhausen, Prolegomena, Berlin, 1895, pp. 322 sqq.). Abraham in particular was a combination of Israelitic, Edomitic, Moabitic, and Ammonitic nations. These collective names were afterward conceived of as names of individuals of remote antiquity, to whom fancy involuntarily ascribed a history reflecting the views and wishes of the later period. But there is little to prove that the names of the patriarchs were originally collective names; and against the supposition is the fact that the Israelites did not call themselves after the name of Abraham but after that of Isaac, Jacob, Israel. Moreover, the picture of Abraham presented by EJ is not what one would expect Israel's fancy of the time of the Prophets to paint as the portrait pf a patriarch par excellence. Wellhausen says of the patriarchs as they appear in EJ: "They are not courageous and manly, but good house-masters, a little under the influence of their more judicious wives." It is hardly conceivable, that the Israel of the monarchy should have imagined as the type of an Israelite indeed a man without courage, devoid of manliness, and ruled by his wife. Abraham's faith and obedience are emphasized and he is depicted as interceding with Yahweh; but EJ also makes him marry his half-sister, which was incest according to the Israelitic conception; he took Lot with him against Yahweh's command; though Yahweh had promised him Canaan as his abode, he went thence to Egypt; more than once he endangered the honor of his wife; his faith is occasionally, though only momentarily, not free from doubt (Gen. xv. 8, xvii. 17, 18). If, then, the origin of Abraham as a fictitious personage can not be explained and traced, nothing remains but to conclude that his history rests upon tradition. Like all tradition, that of Abraham may contain inaccuracies, amplifications, or gaps; but the less it answers the expectation of an ideal form or can be proved to be a product of later times developed from the past, the greater is its claim to credibility. 3. Historicity of the Patriarchs Defended. Another point raised against the historicity of the Biblical narratives of the patriarchs is that in the time of Moses, and later, Yahweh was a thunder-god dwelling on Sinai and was worshiped in a fetishistic manner by the Israelitic tribes, which at the same time were devoted to totemism. But this objection rests upon a rash inference, from single phenomena of the religious life at the time of Moses and the subsequent period, that the religious conceptions and usages of the Israelites were identical with those of the Arabs who lived two thousand years later in the time before Mohammed's appearance. The Israelites were not conscious of any special relationship with the Arabs, and the religion of the latter before Mohammed can not be proved to be a petrifaction of former millenniums. The effort to prove the patriarchs unhistorical from the narrative of the sending of the spies (Num. xiii.-xiv.)--because it appears questionable in that narrative whether it was worth while or possible for Israel to take Canaan, whereas on the basis of the history of the patriarchs both were certain--falls to the ground when it is remembered that the authors who wrote the story of the spies were fully convinced that Yahweh had promised Canaan to the fathers, and that they wrote with the supposition that no intelligent reader would see in their narrative a contradiction of this conviction. The most plausible objection to the historicity of the narratives of the patriarchs is the length of time between the events recorded and the origin of the documentary sources extant in Genesis. But that tradition may preserve a faithful record of former events especially where matters of a religious nature are concerned, will be denied only by those who judge the remote past by the conditions of the present. The Indians and the Gauls for centuries handed on their religious conceptions by means of oral tradition; and it is very possible that the authors of the documents of Genesis had records from very ancient, even pre-Mosaic, time. The possibility once admitted, that a faithful tradition concerning Abraham may have been preserved to the time when the documents of Genesis originated, the last reason for considering him a product of later Israelitic fancy, is removed. 4. Impossibility of Fully Reconstructing the Sources. No one of the three sources which are pieced together in the present Genesis can be fully reconstructed. The document P must have contained much more material than the sum total of all the excerpts from it. The source E appears first with certainty in chapter xx.; and J, especially for Abraham's later years, is preserved only in fragments. There is thus no means of knowing all that the sources originally contained; and, furthermore, many passages of Genesis can be assigned with certainty neither to one nor another of the sources. Hence the accuracy and completeness of our knowledge of Abraham's history is dependent on the fidelity and good judgment with which the compiler of Genesis has done his work; and in attempting to delineate the true story of Abraham's life it is an imperative duty to weigh carefully the possibility and probability of each detail. (A. Köhler.) The historicity of the personal as distinguished from the tribal Abraham is still held by a wide though perhaps narrowing circle of scholars. In the above article the difficulties are too lightly treated. The embarrassing question of Abraham's date is disposed of (§ 1) by the assumption that it can not have been later than 1900 B.C. But Gen. xiv., by its Babylonian synchronism, puts it in the twenty-third century B.C., at least one thousand years before Moses, and fifteen hundred years before the generally accepted date of Abraham's first biographer. Moreover, practically nothing is known of the history of his descendants until the era of Moses. When we seek for at least a substantial personality amid the vagueness, inconsistencies, and contradictions direct or inferential, that mark the several accounts, we are thrown back upon the fact of the persistent general tradition, which evidently had a very early origin, and to which great weight should in fairness be attached. J. F. M. Bibliography: Besides the histories of Israel and commentaries on Genesis, consult W. J. Deane, Abraham: His Life and Times, London, 1886; H. C. Tomkins, Abraham and His Age, ib. 1897; C. H. Cornill, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Leipsic, 1898, Eng. transl., Chicago, 1898; P. Dornstetter, Abraham; Studien über die Anfänge des hebräischen Volkes, Frieburg, 1902. For the extra-Biblical traditions: G. Weil, Biblische Legenden der Muselmänner, Frankfort, 1845; H. Beer, Leben Abrahams, nach Auffassung der jüdischen Sage, Leipsic, 1859; T. P. Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, pp. 4-7, London, 1895 (gives Abraham passages in the Koran); B. W. Bacon, Abraham the Heir of Yahweh, in the New World, vol. viii. (1899); JE, i. 83-92. Abraham, Apocalypse of ABRAHAM, APOCALYPSE OF. See [30]Pseudepigrapha, Old Testament, II., 21. Abraham A Sancta Clara ABRAHAM A SANCTA CLARA: Monastic name by which a famous German preacher, Ulrich Megerle, is usually known; b. at Kreenheinstetten (20 m. n. of Constance), Baden, July 2, 1644; d. in Vienna Dec. 1, 1709. He was the son of an innkeeper, and received his education from the Jesuits at Ingolstadt and from the Benedictines at Salzburg. In 1662 he entered the order of the barefooted Augustinians, and rose to positions of authority, becoming prior of his house, provincial, and definitor. After 1668 or 1669, with the exception of seven years (1682-89) spent at Graz, he was attached to the Augustinian Church in Vienna. He was primarily a preacher, and his first published works were reprints of sermons. His definite literary activity dates from the plague of 1679, which called forth three small books; but these, as well as similar occasional writings--such as Auf, auf, ihr Christen (1683), inspired by the danger of the Turkish invasion and imitated by Schiller in the Capuchin's address in Wallensteins Lager, viii.; Gack Gack (1685), a book for pilgrims; Heilsames Gemisch-Gemasch (1704)--are of comparatively slight importance. His principal work, Judas, der Erz-Schelm (4 parts, 1686-95), is an imaginary biography of the betrayer of Christ, written from the standpoint of a satirical preacher. About the same time he wrote a compendium of moral theology, Grammatica religiosa (1691) in which the more dignified Latin precludes the characteristic pungent flavor of his vernacular works. Abraham represents the Catholicism of his age not in its noblest, but in its most usual form. He is fanatical, eager to make converts, intolerant; constant in praise of the Jesuits, full of the bitterest reproaches against Protestants and Jews. He has the most childish notions of science; but he makes very skilful use of his scanty equipment of learning. He has a perfect command of every rhetorical artifice, and knows how to play upon the feelings of his hearers, to appeal to their weaknesses, and to call up vivid pictures before their minds, not disdaining to raise a laugh. Satire is his strongest weapon; and he is a direct inheritor of the old German satiric tradition. He exercises the functions of a critic with the fearlessness of a mendicant friar; neither his audience, nor the court, nor his brethren of the clergy are spared. The burlesque manner which he uses in treating the most serious subjects was popular in the fifteenth century, and may have suited that age; but it was out of place in the second half of the seventeenth. The force of the contrast becomes apparent when it is remembered that Abraham was appointed court preacher in 1677, sixteen years after the same title had been conferred on a Bossuet. It is only fair, however, to recall what the general level of education was in Roman Catholic Germany at the time, and to see in Abraham rather a popular entertainer than a preacher. A complete edition of his works in twenty-one volumes was published at Passau and Lindau (1835-54), and selections at Heilbronn (7 vols., 1840-44) and Vienna (2 vols., 1846). Single works are accessible in many editions (Judas der Erz-Schelm, Stuttgart, 1882; Auf, auf, ihr Christen, Vienna, 1883). (E. Steinmeyer.) Bibliography: T. G. von Karajan, Abraham a Sancta Clara, Vienna, 1867; W. Scherer, Vorträge und Aufsätze zur Geschichte des geistlichen Lebens in Deutschland und Oesterreich, Berlin, 1874; H. Mareta, Ueber Judas den Erzschelm, Vienna, 1875; A. Silberstein, Denksäulen im Gebiete der Cultur and Literatur. Abraham a Sancta Clara, ib. 1879; E. Schnell, Pater Abraham a Sancta Clara, Munich, 1895; C. Blanckenburg, Studien über die Sprache Abrahams a Sancta Clara, Halle, 1897. Abraham Ecchellensis ABRAHAM ECCHELLENSIS, ek´´el-en´sis: A learned Maronite; b. at Eckel, Syria, in the latter part of the sixteenth century; d. at Rome in 1664. He was educated in the college of the Maronites at Rome and was promoted to doctor of philosophy and theology. For a time he was professor of Arabic and Syriac at Pisa, and afterward at Rome, where he was called by Urban III. He was one of the first to promote Syriac studies in Europe, and his Syriac grammar (Rome, 1628) was long used. In 1640 he was called to Paris by Le Jay to assist in the Paris Polyglot. The Arabic and Syriac texts for this work had been entrusted to Gabriel Sionita, a Maronite professor at Paris, who performed his work in an unsatisfactory manner. Abraham agreed to undertake the books of Ruth, Esther, Tobit, Judith, Baruch, and Maccabees, on the ground that he possessed better codices than Gabriel. The latter, however, took offense; whereupon Abraham resigned the work and returned to Rome (1642), having edited only the books of Ruth and III Maccabees. He was attacked in four letters (Paris, 1646) by Valérien de Flavigny, who wrote on the side of his friend Gabriel, and a sharp controversy ensued (cf. A. G. Masch, Bibliotheca sacra, Halle, 1778, p. 358). During a second residence in Paris (1645-53) Abraham taught at the Sorbonne, and published the concluding volume of an edition of the works of St. Alithony (1646; vol. i., containing the letters, had appeared in 1641), as well as Catalogus librorum Chaldæorum auctore Hebed Jesu (1653) and Chronicon orientale (1653), a history of the patriarchate of Alexandria, translated from the Arabic of Ibn al-Rahib, with an appendix treating of Arabia and the Arabs before Mohammed. In 1653 he returned to Rome. He published two works in answer to the views of [31]John Selden concerning the early position of the episcopate, viz., De origine nominis papæ (Rome, 1660) and Eutychius patriarcha Alexandrinus vindicatus (1661). (A. Jeremias.) Bibliography: For his life consult J. S. Ersch and J. G. Gruber, Allgemeine Encyclopädie der Wissenschaften, i. 30, 360, Leipsic, 1818; Biographie universelle ancienne et moderne, xii. 457-458, Paris, 1814. Abrahamites ABRAHAMITES: A deistic sect which appeared in the district of Pardubitz, eastern Bohemia, after 1782. They claimed to hold to the faith of Abraham before his circumcision; rejected most of the Christian doctrines, but professed belief in one God, and accepted, of the Scriptures, only the Decalogue and the Lord's Prayer. The government took measures against them, and they were soon suppressed. The name was also applied to the followers of one Abraham (Ibrahim) of Antioch at the beginning of the ninth century; they were charged with idolatrous and licentious practises, probably on insufficient grounds, and may have been related to the Paulicians. Bibliography: [P. A. Winkopp], Geschichte der böhmischen Deisten, Leipsic, 1785; J. G. Meusel, Vermischte Nachrichten und Bemerkungen, Erlangen, 1818; H. Grégoire, Histoire des sectes réligieuses, v. 419 sqq., 6 vols., Paris, 1828-45. Abrahams, Israel ABRAHAMS, ISRAEL: English rabbinical scholar and author; b. at London Nov. 26, 1858. He was educated at Jews' College and University College, London (M.A., 1881). After teaching at Jews' College for several years, he was appointed senior tutor there in 1900, but in 1902 accepted a call to Cambridge as reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature. He has been a member of the Committee for Training Jewish Teachers, the Committee of the Anglo-Jewish Association, was the first president of the Union of Jewish Literary Societies, and has been successively honorary secretary and president of the Jewish Historical Society. Abrahams has been one of the editors of the Jewish Quarterly Review since 1889, and contributes each week to the Jewish Chronicle. His works include Aspects of Judaism (London, 1895; in collaboration with Claude G. Montefiore); Jewish Life in the Middle Ages (1896); Chapters on Jewish Literature (1899); Maimonides (Philadelphia, 1903; in collaboration with D. Yellin); and Festival Thoughts (London, 1905-06). Abrahamson, Laurentius ABRAHAMSON, LAURENTIUS GUSTAV: Lutheran; b. at Medaker, Sweden, Mar. 2, 1856. He was educated at the public schools of his native country, and at Augustana College and Theological Seminary (Rock Island, Ill.), graduating in 1880. He entered the Lutheran ministry in the same year, and in 1886 was called to the pastorate of the Salem Lutheran Church, Chicago, where he has since remained. He was associate editor of Augustana, the official organ of the Augustana Synod, from 1885 to 1896, and for six years was president of the Illinois Conference of the same synod. He is also a member of the board of directors of Augustana College and Theological Seminary, president of the board of directors of Augustana Hospital, Chicago, a member of the board of missions of the Augustana Synod and the Illinois Conference, and was a delegate to the International Lutheran World's Congress at Lund, Sweden, in 1901. In 1894 he received the Swedish decoration of Knight Royal of the Order of the Polar Star from King Oscar II. In theology he belongs to the historic Evangelical Lutheran Church, and adheres to its original unaltered creeds. He has written Jubel Album (Chicago, 1893). Abrasax ABRASAX, ab´r?-sax (ABRAXAS, ab-rax´as). Various Explanations (§ 1). The Abrasax Gems (§ 2). Abrasax (which is far commoner in the sources than the variant form Abraxas) is a word of mystic meaning in the system of the Gnostic Basilides, being there applied to the "Great Archon" (Gk., megas archOn), the princeps, of the 365 spheres (Gk., ouranoi; cf. Hippolytus, Refutatio, vii. 14; Irenæus, Adversus hæreses, I. xxiv. 7). Renan considers it a designation of the most high, unspeakable God lost in the greatness of his majesty; but he has probably been misled by erroneous statements of the Fathers, such as Jerome on Amos iii. ("Basilides, who calls the omnipotent God by the portentous name abraxas'"), and pseudo-Tertullian (Adversus omnes hæreses, iv.: "he [Basilides] affirms that there is a supreme God by the name Abraxas'"). 1. Various Explanations. Much labor has been spent in seeking an explanation for and the etymology of the name. Salmasius thought it Egyptian, but never gave the proofs which he promised. Münter separates it into two Coptic words signifying "new fangled title." Bellermann thinks it a compound of the Egyptian words abrak and sax, meaning "the honorable and hallowed word," or "the word is adorable." Sharpe finds in it an Egyptian invocation to the Godhead, meaning "hurt me not." Others have endeavored to find a Hebrew origin. Geiger sees in it a Grecized form of ha-berakhah, "the blessing," a meaning which King declares philologically untenable. Passerius derives it from abh, "father," bara, "to create," and a- negative--"the uncreated Father." Wendelin discovers a compound of the initial letters, amounting to 365 in numerical value, of four Hebrew and three Greek words, all written with Greek characters: ab, ben, rouach, hakadOs; sOteria apo xylou ("Father, Son, Spirit, holy; salvation from the cross"). According to a note of De Beausobre's, Hardouin accepted the first three of these, taking the four others for the initials of the Greek anthrOpoussOzOn hagiOi xylOi, "saving mankind by the holy cross." Barzilai goes back for explanation to the first verse of the prayer attributed to Rabbi Nehunya ban ha-Kanah, the literal rendering of which is "O [God], with thy mighty right hand deliver the unhappy [people]," forming from the initial and final letters of the words the word Abrakd (pronounced Abrakad), with the meaning "the host of the winged ones," i.e., angels. But this extremely ingenious theory would at most explain only the mystic word Abracadabra, whose connection with Abrasax is by no means certain. De Beausobre derives Abrasax from the Greek habros and saO, "the beautiful, the glorious Savior." It is scarcely necessary to remark upon the lack of probability for all these interpretations; and perhaps the word may be included among those mysterious expressions discussed by Harnack (Ueber das gnostische Buch Pistis-Sophia, TU, vii. 2, 1891, 86-89), "which belong to no known speech, and by their singular collocation of vowels and consonants give evidence that they belong to some mystic dialect, or take their origin from some supposed divine inspiration." That the numerical value of the letters amounts to 365, the number of the heavens of Basilides and of the days of the year, was remarked by the early Fathers (Irenæus, Hippolytus, the pseudo-Tertullian, and others); but this does not explain the name any more than it explains Meithras and Neilos, of which the same is true. And the number 365 is made use of not only by Basilides, but by other Gnostics as well. 2. The Abrasax Gems. The Gnostic sect which comes into light in Spain and southern Gaul at the end of the fourth century and at the beginning of the fifth, which Jerome connects with Basilides, and which (according to his Epist., lxxv.) used the name Abrasax, is considered by recent scholars to have nothing to do with Basilides. Moreover, the word is of frequent occurrence in the magic papyri; it is found on the Greek metal tesseræ among other mystic words, and still more often on carved gems. The fact that the name occurs on these gems in connection with representations of figures with the head of a cock, a lion, or an ass, and the tail of a serpent was formerly taken in the light of what Irenæus says (Adversus hæreses, I. xxiv. 5) about the followers of Basilides: "These men, moreover, practise magic, and use images, incantations, invocations, and every other kind of curious art. Coining also certain names as if they were those of the angels, they proclaim some of these as belonging to the first, and others to the second heaven; and then they strive to set forth the names, principles, angels, and powers of the 365 imagined heavens." From this an attempt was made to explain first the gems which bore the name and the figures described above, and then all gems with unintelligible inscriptions and figures not in accord with pure Greco-Roman art, as Abrasax-stones, Basilidian or Gnostic gems. Some scholars, especially Bellermann and Matter, took great pains to classify the different representations. But a protest was soon raised against this interpretation of these stones. De Beausobre, Passerius, and Caylus decisively declared them to be pagan; and Harnack has gone so far as to say that it is doubtful whether a single Abrasax-gem is Basilidian. Having due regard to the magic papyri, in which many of the unintelligible names of the Abrasax-gems reappear, besides directions for making and using gems with similar figures and formulas for magical purposes, it can scarcely be doubted that these stones are pagan amulets and instruments of magic. (W. Drexler.) Bibliography: C. Salmasius, De armis climactericis, p. 572, Leyden, 1648; Wendelin, in a letter in J. Macarii Abraxas . . . accedit Abraxas Proteus, seu multiformis gemmæ Basilidainæ portentosa varietas, exhibita . . . a J. Chifletio, pp. 112-115. Antwerp, 1657; I. de Beausobre, Histoire critique de Manichée et du Manichéisme, ii. 50-69, Amsterdam, 1739; J. B. Passerius, De gemmis Basilidianis diatriba, in Gori, Thesaurus gemmarum antiquarum astriferarum, ii. 221-286, Florence, 1750; Tubières de Grimvard, Count de Caylus, Recueil d'antiquités, vi. 65-66, Paris, 1764; F. Münter, Versuch über die kirchlichen Alterthümer der Gnostiker, pp. 203-214, Anspach, 1790; J. J. Bellermann, Versuch über die Gemmen der Alten mit dem Abraxas-Bilde, 3 parts, Berlin, 1818-19; J. Matter, Histoire critique du Gnosticisme, i., Paris, 1828, and Strasburg, 1843; idem, Abraxas in Herzog, RE, 2d ed., 1877; S. Sharpe, Egyptian Mythology, p. 252, note, London, 1863; Geiger, Abraxas und Elxai, in ZDMG, xviii. (1864) 824-825; G. Barzilai, Gli Abraxas, studio archeologico, Triest, 1873; idem, Appendice alla dissertazione sugli Abraxas, ib. 1874; E. Renan, Histoire des origines du Christianisme, vi. 160, Paris, 1879; C. W. King, The Gnostics and their Remains, London, 1887; Harnack, Geschichte, i. 161. The older material is listed by Matter, ut sup., and Wessely, Ephesia grammata, vol. ii., Vienna, 1886. Worth consulting are B. de Monfaucon, L'Antiquité expliquée, ii. 356, Paris 1719-24, Eng. transl., 10 vols., London, 1721-25; R,. E. Raspe, Descriptive catalogue of . . . engraved Gems . . . cast . . . by J. Tassie . . . 2 vols., London, 1791; J. M. A. Chabouillet, Catalogue général et raisonné des camées et pierres gravées de la Bibliothèque Impériale, Paris, 1858; DACL, i. 127-155. Plates of the so-called Abraxas-gems are to be found in the works of Count de Caylus, Matter, King, and in the DACL. Abravanel ABRAVANEL. See [32]Abrabanel. Absalom ABSALOM. See [33]David. Absalon (Axel) ABSALON (AXEL): Archbishop of Lund (1178-1201), one of the principal figures in Scandinavian medieval history; b. on the island of Zealand, then under his father's government, probably in Oct., 1128; d. in the abbey of Sorö (on the island of Zealand, 44 m. w.s.w. of Copenhagen) Mar. 21, 1201. He was brought up with the future king Waldemar, amid surroundings which befitted his birth. When he was eighteen or nineteen, his father retired from the world to the Benedictine monastery of Sorö, which he had built, and the lad went to Paris to study theology and canon law. He came back to Denmark to find civil war raging among the partizans of three princes. As he was already a priest, he probably took no part in the bloody battle of Gradehede near Viborg (1157) which finally decided the strife in favor of his old playmate Waldemar; but in the following spring he and his retainers repelled an attack of Wendish pirates who were ravaging Zealand. When Bishop Asser of Roskilde died (on Good Friday, 1158), the chapter and the citizens quarreled over the choice of a successor, and the armed intervention of Waldemar became necessary. At an election held in his presence, Absalon was unanimously chosen, and soon showed that he considered the defense of his country not the least among his episcopal duties. The Danes now assumed the offensive against the pagan Wends, and two campaigns were made against them in 1159. The next year Waldemar joined forces with Henry the Lion, with the result that Mecklenburg was added to the German territory, and the island of Rügen to the Danish. All this time Absalon was busy building fortresses and providing guards for the coasts, sometimes undertaking perilous winter voyages to inspect the defenses, with the aspect of a Viking but the spirit of a crusader. At the same time he was laboring for internal peace by endeavoring to attach the partizans of the defeated factions to the king, and busily providing for monastic reform and extension. He brought to Denmark his old fellow student William, canon of St. Geneviève at Paris, and placed him over the canons of Eskilsö near Roskilde, whose house he later removed to Ebelholt near Arresö, helping them to build their new church and richly endowing it. After his father's death (c. 1157) discipline had decayed among the Benedictines of Sorö, and Absalon brought Cistercian monks from Esrom to restore it, making it one of the richest of Cistercian abbeys. He and his kinsfolk were buried in the great church there which he began to build after 1174. In 1162 he accompanied Waldemar to St. Jean de Laune on the Saône, where Frederick Barbarossa solemnly recognized Victor IV. as the legitimate pope and banned Alexander III. and his adherents. Absalon was much dissatisfied with this result; he desired Waldemar to refuse the oath of allegiance to the emperor, and induced him to withdraw from the sitting in which Alexander was denounced. He also protested later when Victor IV. undertook to consecrate a bishop for Odense, and was supported in his attitude by the bishops of Viborg and Börglum and by most of the monastic communities, while Archbishop Eskil of Lund took the same position so strongly that he had to spend seven years in exile at Clairvaux. The bishops of Sleswick, Ribe, Aarhus, and Odense were on the side of the imperial pope. In the fresh campaigns against the Wends, between 1164 and 1185, Absalon took an active part, winning from his contemporaries the name of pater patriæ. In 1167 the king gave him the town of Havn (Copenhagen), and he erected a strong fortress, which was of great importance for the development of commerce. He was active in establishing a system of tithes, which aroused much opposition. The disturbances in Eskil's jurisdiction (he had now become reconciled with the king) induced him to resign his archbishopric, naming Absalon as his successor. The latter accepted his promotion unwillingly, and was allowed to retain the see of Roskilde for thirteen years after his assumption of the higher office in 1178. As archbishop he withdrew more and more from political activity to devote himself to the interests of the Church. The part taken by the Danes in the third crusade was no doubt due to his influence. He was a strong upholder of clerical celibacy, and the purity of his own life was universally admired. He is also credited with having done much for liturgical uniformity; and it was at his wish that Saxo, one of his clergy, undertook to write his Historia Danica, one of the most important sources for Danish history. (F. Nielsen.) Bibliography: J. Langebek [continued by P. F. Suhm and Others], Scriptores rerum Danicarum medii ævi, 9 vols., Copenhagen, 1774-87; H. J. F. Estrup, Life (in Danish), Soröe, 1826, Germ. transl., Leipsic, 1832; Saxo Grammaticus, Historia Danica, part i., ed. P. E. Müller, part ii., ed. J. M. Velschow, Copenhagen, 1839-58. Absolution ABSOLUTION. See [34]Confession of Sins. Abstinence ABSTINENCE. See [35]Fasting; [36]Total Abstinence. Abulfaraj ABULFARAJ (Abu al-Faraj ibn Harun, commonly called Bar Hebræus; his real name was Gregory): Syriac writer and bishop; b. in the Cappadocian town of Melitene (200 m. n.e. of Antioch) 1226; d. at Maragha (60 m. s. of Tabriz), Azerbaijan, Persia, July 30, 1286. He belonged to a Jewish family which had gone over to Jacobite Christianity, but whether his father or a more remote ancestor made the change is uncertain. He finished his studies at Antioch and lived for a time there as a monk in a cave; he went to Tripoli, Syria, to perfect himself in medicine (his father's profession) and rhetoric; became bishop of Gubos, near Melitene (1246), of Lakabhin (1247), of Aleppo (1253); maphrian (primate) of the Jacobites in Chaldea, Mesopotamia, and Assyria, with his seat at Takrit on the Tigris (1264). It was the time of the Mongol inroads under Hulaku, and the country was sorely devastated; but by his discretion and the high repute in which he was held at the Tatar court, Abulfaraj was able to do much to ameliorate the condition of the Christians. As a writer his importance is due to his wide acquaintance with the knowledge of his time; his works are exceedingly numerous upon the most diverse subjects. A few of them are in Arabic, but the greater number in Syriac. Bibliography: E. Nestle, Syrische Grammatik, "Literatura," pp. 46-50 Berlin, 1888 (gives published works of Abulfaraj); life by T. Nöldeke, in Orientalische Skizzen, pp. 250 sqq., Berlin, 1892, Eng. transl., London, 1892; W. Wright, Short History of Syriac Literature, pp. 265-281, London, 1894 (reprinted, with additions, from Encyc. Brit., xxii.; gives complete list of works of Abulfaraj); Hauck-Herzog, RE, i. 123-124, ii. 780; E. A. W. Budge, The Laughable Stories collected by Mar Gregory John Bar Hebræus, Syriac Text . . . and Eng. transl., London, 1897. Abuna ABUNA. See [37]Abyssinia and the Abyssinian Church, §§ 2, 5. Abyssinia and the Abyssinian Church ABYSSINIA AND THE ABYSSINIAN CHURCH. Worthlessness of Traditional History (§ 1). Introduction of Christianity (§ 2). Close Connection with Egypt in Doctrine (§ 3). The Canon and Creed (§ 4). Organization of the Church (§ 5). Beliefs and Practises (§ 6). The Falashas (§ 7). Christian Missions (§ 8). The modern Abyssinia is a country of East Africa, between the Red Sea and the Blue Nile, to the southeast of Nubia. Its boundaries are not definite, and its area is variously given from 150,000 to 240,000 square miles. Estimates of the population vary from 3,500,000 to 8,500,000. In antiquity the term "Ethiopia" was used rather vaguely to signify Abyssinia (with somewhat wider extent than at present), Nubia, and Sennar. These were the lands of the Ethiopian Church, of which the Abyssinian Church is the modem representative. Christianity is now confined to the plateau and mountain regions of Abyssinia. 1. Worthlessness of Traditional History. Native tradition ascribes the name of the country and the foundation of the state to Ethiops, the son of Cush, the son of Ham. The queen of Sheba who visited Solomon is identified with an Abyssinian queen, Makeda; and her visit is said to have led to the conversion of the people to Judaism. The tradition continues that she bore to Solomon a son, Menelik, who was educated in Jerusalem by his father. He then returned to the old capital, Axum, and brought with him both Jewish priests and the ark, which was carried away from the Temple in Jerusalem and deposited in the Ethiopian capital; and from that time to the present Abyssinia is said to have been ruled by a Solomonic dynasty, the succession having been broken only now and then by usurpers and conquerors. Of course, all this has no historic value. That Judaism preceded Christianity in the land is not proved by the observance of certain Jewish customs (such as circumcision, the Mosaic laws about foods, the Sabbath, etc.); these may have been introduced from ancient Egypt or the Coptic Church. A Jewish immigration, however, must have taken place, as it is proved by the presence in the land of numerous Jews, the so-called Falashas (see below, [38]§ 7); but the time, manner, and magnitude of this immigration can not be ascertained. 2. Introduction of Christianity. There is no independent native tradition of the conversion of the Abyssinians to Christianity According to the Greek and Roman Church historians (Rufinus, i. 9; Theodoret, i. 22; Socrates, i. 19; Sozomen, ii. 24), in the time of Constantine the Great (about 330), Frumentius and Edesius accompanied the uncle of the former from Tyre on a voyage in the Red Sea. They were shipwrecked on the Ethiopian coast and carried by the natives to the court at Axum. There they won confidence and honor, and were allowed to preach Christianity. Edesius afterward returned to Tyre; but Frumentius continued the work, went to Alexandria, where Athanasius occupied the patriarchal see, obtained missionary coworkers from him, and was himself consecrated bishop and head of the Ethiopian Church, with the title Abba Salama, "Father of Peace," which is still in use along with the later Abuna, "Our Father." It is not improbable that Christianity was known to the Abyssinians before the time of Frumentius (whose date has been fixed by Dillmann at 341); but he is properly regarded as the founder of the Ethiopian Church. In the fifth and sixth centuries the mission received a new impulse by the immigration of a number of monks (Monophysites) from upper Egypt. 3. Close Connection with Egypt in Doctrine. The close connection between the Abyssinian Church and Egypt is very apparent in the sphere of doctrine. Like the Coptic Church, the Abyssinian holds a monophysitic view of the person of Christ. This question has long been settled; but it is still debated whether Christ had a double or threefold birth. The Abuna and the majority of the priests hold to the twofold view, which is the more purely monophysitic. The threefold view was introduced by a monk about 100 years ago, and is prevalent in Shoa (the southern and southeastern district). Also the questions of the person and dignity of Mary, whether she really bore God, or was only the mother of Jesus; whether she is entitled to the same worship as Christ, etc.,--are eagerly debated though it seems to be the general view that an almost divine worship is due to the Virgin, and that she and the saints are indispensable mediators between Christ and man. Some even assert that the saints, who died not for their own sins, died like Christ for the sins of others. 4. The Canon and Creed. The church books are all in the Ethiopic language, which is a dead tongue, studied only by the priests, and not understood by them. For the Ethionic Bible translation see [39]Bible Versions, A, VIII. The Abyssinian canon, called Semanya Ahadu, "Eighty-one," because it consists of eighty-one sacred books, comprises, besides the sixty-five books of the usual canon, the Apocrypha, the Epistles of Clement, and the Synodus (that is, the decrees of the Apostolic Council of Jerusalem; cf. W. Fell, Canones apostolorum Æthiopice, Leipsic, 1871). Only a very slight difference, however, is made between this canon and some other works of ecclesiastical literature,--the Didascalia or Apostolic Constitutions (text and transl. by T. P. Platt, published by the Oriental Translation Fund, London, 1834); the Haimanot-Abo, giving quotations from the councils and the Fathers; the writings of the Eastern Fathers, Athanasius, Cyril, and Chrysostom; and the Fetha-Nagast, the royal law-book. On the whole, the tradition of the Church has the same authority as the Scriptures. Of the councils, only those before the Council of Chalcedon (451) are recognized, because at Chalcedon the monophysite heresy was condemned. The Apostles' Creed is unknown; the Nicene is used. 5. Organization of the Church. At the head of the Church stands the Abuna, who resides in Gondar. He is appointed by the Coptic patriarch of Cairo; and, according to a law, dating from the thirteenth century, no Abyssinian, but only a Copt, can be Abuna. He alone has the right to anoint the king and to ordain priests and deacons. Both in secular and in ecclesiastical affairs he has great power. The duties of the priests are to conduct divine service three or four times daily and for three or four hours on Sunday, to attend to the church business, and to purify houses and utensils. Priests, monks, and scholars celebrate the Holy Communion every morning. The deacons bake the bread for the Lord's Supper and perform menial duties. Any one who can read may be ordained deacon, and a priest is merely required to recite the Nicene Creed. To learn the long liturgies, however, is often a matter of years. It is usual to marry before ordination, as marriage is not allowed afterward. Besides priests and deacons each church has its alaka, who looks after church property and attends to secular business. The debturas sing at divine service; and the larger churches have a komofat who settles disputes among the clergy. Beside the secular clergy stand the monastic under the head of the Etsh'ege, who ranks next to the Abuna and decides many ecclesiastical and theological questions in common with him. The number of monks and nuns (living after the rule of Pachomius) is very great. At Debra Damo, one of the chief monasteries, about 300 monks live together in small huts. A part of their duties is the education of the young. The church buildings are exceedingly numerous, generally small, low, circular structures, with a conical roof of thatch and four doors, one toward each of the cardinal points. Surrounding the building is a court, occupied during service by the laymen, and often serving at night as a place of refuge to travelers. The interior, dirty and neglected, is divided into two apartments,--the holy for the priests and deacons, and the holy of holies, where stands the ark. This ark is the principal object in the whole church. Neither the deacons, laymen, nor non-Christians dare touch it; if they do, the church and the adjacent cemetery become unclean, and must be purified. Indifferent pictures of the numerous saints, the Virgin, the angels, and the devil adorn the interior; but statues are forbidden. Crosses are found, but no crucifixes. 6. Beliefs and Practises. Service consists of singing of psalms, recitals of parts of the Bible and liturgy, and prayers, especially to the Virgin and the wonder-working saints; it is undignified and unedifying. They believe that every one has a guardian spirit and therefore venerate the angels. The archangel Michael is considered especially holy. They divide the good angels into nine classes, of which there were originally ten, but one fell away under Satanael. Relics are preserved and venerated as by the Roman Catholic Church. Of sacraments, the Church numbers two, baptism and the Lord's Supper. Both adults and children are baptized, the former by immersion, the latter by sprinkling. For boys the rite is performed forty days after birth; for girls, eighty days. The purpose of baptism is the forgiveness of sins. The Lord's Supper is preceded by a severe fast; and offerings of incense, oil, bread, and wine are usually brought. The Jewish Sabbath is kept as well as the Christian Sunday; and altogether there are one hundred and eighty holidays in the year. Fasting, observed with great strictness, plays a prominent part in the discipline, and about half the days of the year are nominally fast-days. 7. The Falashas. Not all the inhabitants of Abyssinia are Christians; and not all Christians belong to the State Church. The Zalanes, a nomadic tribe, consider themselves to be Jews, and keep aloof from the Christians, though they are described as being really Christians. The Chamantes are baptized, and have Christian priests; but in reality they are nearly pagans, and celebrate many thoroughly pagan rites. The real Jews, the Falashas, live along the northern shore of Lake Tsana, in the neighborhood of Gondar and Shelga, where they pursue agriculture and trade. They are more industrious than the Christians, but also more ignorant and spiritually more forlorn. Mohammedanism is steadily progressing. In order to distinguish themselves from all non-Christians, the Christians receive at baptism a cord of blue silk or cotton, called mateb, which they always wear around the neck. 8. Christian Missions. The first missionary work which the Western Church undertook in Abyssinia was the Jesuit mission of 1555, which labored there for nearly a century; but the missionary activity of the Jesuits was deeply mixed with the politics of the country; and their main purpose seems to have been to establish there the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. At last they reached the goal. After a frightful massacre of the opposite party, King Sasneos declared the Roman Catholic Church the Church of the State. In 1640, however, the Jesuits, with their Roman archbishop, were compelled to leave the country, and the old religion with its old Church was reestablished. With the new Abuna who followed after this Roman Catholic interregnum, Peter Heyling, from Lübeck, a Protestant missionary, came into the country, but his great zeal led only to small results. The Church Missionary Society had more success in the first half of the nineteenth century. The circumstance that a pious Abyssinian monk, Abi-Ruch or Abreka, who had been guide to the traveler Bruce, translated the whole Bible into the Amharic language (1808-18), gave the first occasion to this attempt. The British and Foreign Bible Society bought and printed the translation, and in 1830 the missionaries Gobat and Kugler were sent to Abyssinia. The latter was succeeded by Isenberg, and Gobat by Blumhardt in 1837. Later came Krapf. The work was partly spoiled by the opposition of the native priests and the intrigues of newly arrived Roman Catholics, and the missionaries were expelled in 1838. Krapf then spent three years in Shoa, but was driven thence in 1842. The Roman Catholics were expelled in 1854. In 1858 a Coptic priest who had frequented the school of a Protestant missionary in Alexandria, and favored the Protestant mission, became Abuna, and the St. Chrischona Society of Basel now sent a number of Protestant missionaries into the country. They labored with considerable success; but the disturbances of the reign of King Theodore overtook them, and almost destroyed their work. They were thrown into prison and were only released after the victory of the British. Since that time, few missionary attempts have been made in Abyssinia. The Swedes have one or two stations in the country; and during the past ten years there has been some effort to resume work on the part of the Roman Catholics (mainly French). There is a vicar apostolic for Abyssinia with residence in Alitiena, Tigre; and a Uniat "Geez Church" is said to number 10,000 members. See [40]Africa, II., [41]Abyssinia. Bibliography: Makrisi (d. 1441), Historia Coptorum Christianorum, ed. T. Wüstenfeld, Göttingen, 1845; H. Ludolf, Historia æthiopica and Commentarius, Frankfort, 1681, 1693; J. Lobo, Voyage d'Abyssinie (Eng. transl., with continuation of the history of Abyssinia . . . by M. L. Grand, . . . London, 1735; J. Stæcklein, Allerhand so Lehr- als Geist-reiches Brief, schriften und Reis-Beschreibungen . . . von denen Missionariis der Gesellschaft Jesu, I. viii., Augsburg, 1728; V. de la Croze, Histoire du Christianisme d'Ethiope, . . . The Hague 1739; J. Bruce, Travels to Discover the Sources of the Nile, 1768-1773, Edinburgh, 1790 (often reprinted); G. A. Hoskins, Travels in Ethiopia, London, 1835; C. W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf, Journals detailing their Proceedings in the Kingdom of Shoa, London, 1843; C. W. Isenberg, Abessinien und die evangelische Mission, Bonn, 1844; J. L. Krapf, Travels in East Africa, London, 1860; idem, Travels and Missionary Labours in Africa and Abyssinia, ib. 1867; Lady Mary E. Herbert, Abyssinia and its Apostle, ib. 1868; J. M. Flad, The Falashas of Abyssinia, ib. 1869; idem, Zwölf Jahre in Abessinien, 2 vols., Basel, 1869-87; A. Dillmann, Die Anfänge des axumitischen Reiches, Berlin, 1879; A. Raffray, Les Églises monolithes de la ville de Lalibéla, Paris, 1882; T. Waldmeier, Autobiography, London, 1890; J. T. Bent, The Sacred City of the Ethiopians, ib. 1893; A. B. Wylde, Modern Abyssinia, ib. 1901; H. Vivian, Abyssinia, ib. 1901; M. Fowler, Christian Egypt, ch. vii., ib. 1901. For the liturgy, etc.: J A Giles, Codex apocryphus Novi Testamenti, ib. 1852; E. Trumpp, Das Taufbuch der æthiopischen Kirche, Munich, 1878; C. A. Swainson, Greek Liturgies, Cambridge 1884; C. von Arnhard, Liturgie zum Tauf-Fest der æthiopischen Kirche, Munich, 1888. Acacius of Beroea ACACIUS, ?-kê´shi-us, OF BEROEA: A monk of the monastery of Gindanus near Antioch, afterward abbot of a monastery near Beroea (Aleppo), and from 378 bishop of that city; d. about 435. He took an active part in the ecclesiastical controversies of the East, and was one of the principal complainants against Chrysostom at the synod held in 403 in a suburb of Chalcedon known as Ad Quercum. For this reason he fell out with Rome, but was acknowledged again by Innocent I. in 415. In the Nestorian controversy he occupied a mediating position. The Syrian Balæus wrote five songs in his praise. His extant writings are a letter to Cyril of Alexandria and two to Alexander of Hierapolis, as well as a confession of faith (MPG, lxxvii. 1445-48). (G. Krüger). Bibliography: M. Le Quien, Oriens Christianus, ii. 782-783, Paris, 1763; G. Bickell, Ausgewählte Gedichte der syrischen Kirchenväter Cyrillonas, Balæus, . . . in Bibliothek der Kirchenväter, pp. 83-89, Kempten, 1878-73; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, ii. passim; DCB, i. 12-14. Acacius of Cæsarea ACACIUS OF CÆSAREA: One of the most influential bishops in the large middle party which opposed the Nicene Creed during the Arian controversy. He was the disciple of Eusebius, and his successor in the bishopric of Cæsarea. He took part in the Eusebian synod at Antioch in the spring of 341, and in another at Philippopolis in 343. By the orthodox council of Sardica in the same year he was regarded as one of the heads of the opposing party, and threatened with deposition. Common opposition to the Nicene doctrine held the party together until about 356. Thus, on the death of Maximus of Jerusalem (350 or 351), Acacius helped to get the vacant see for Cyril, who belonged rather to the opposite wing of the party, the later Homoiousians or Semi-Arians. That he fell out with Cyril and procured his deposition (357 or 358) was due partly to jealousy between the two sees, partly to the changed attitude of parties under Constantius (351-361). The two wings fell apart, and Acacius became the leader of the court party, the later Homoians, in the East. In 355 he seems to have been one of the few Easterns who represented the emperor at the Council of Milan; and, according to Jerome, his influence with Constantius was so great that he had much to do with setting up Felix as pope in the place of the banished Liberius. After the so-called Second Council of Sirmium (357) had avoided the controverted terms altogether and said nothing about the ousia ("substance"), it was undoubtedly Acacius who at the Council of Antioch (358) influenced Eudoxius to accept this compromise for the East. At the Synod of Seleucia (359) he took a prominent part. In obvious concert with the imperial delegates, he seemed to favor what Ursacius and Valens tried to carry in the Synod of Rimini, the acceptance of the so-called third Sirmian formula ("similar [homoios] according to the Scriptures . . . similar in all things"). He and his party, it is true, expressly condemned the anomoios ("dissimilar") theory, but they omitted the "in all things," which agreed as little with the real views of Acacius as with those of the Western Homoians. The council ended in a schism; the Homoiousian majority, in a separate session, deposed Acacius and other leading Homoians. But he was in touch with the court; and at the discussions in Constantinople which continued those of Seleucia, the imperial wishes, represented by Acacius, Ursacius, and Valens, prevailed. He was able to celebrate his victory the next year at the Council of Constantinople, and commanded the situation in the East. With the death of Constantius the day of this imperial orthodoxy was done; and under Jovian (363-364) Acacius succeeded in accepting the Nicene orthodoxy which was now that of the court. His name appears among the signatures of those who, at the Synod of Antioch presided over by Meletius (363), accepted the Nicene formula in the sense of homoios kat' ousian ("similar as to substance"). With the accession of the Arian Valens (364), the situation changed once more; and apparently Acacius changed with it. He and his adherents were deposed by the Homoiousian Synod of Lampsacus (365), after which he is heard of no more; probably he soon died. He was a voluminous writer, but nothing remains except the formula of Seleucia, a fragment in Epiphanius (Adversus hæreses, lxxii. 6-10; MPG, xlii. 589-596) of his polemic against Marcellus, and scattered quotations in some of the Catenæ. (F. Loofs.) Along with Eunomius and Aetius, Acacius may be said to have given dialectic completeness to Arianism. In their polemics against the Nicene Symbol they laid chief stress on the fact that the Father was "unbegotten," depending for his being neither upon himself nor another, which could not be said of the Son. They insisted also upon the complete comprehensibility of God. A. H. N. Bibliography: Tillemont, Mémoires, vi. 1699; M. Le Quien, Orieins Christianus, iii. 559, Paris, 1740; Fabricius-Harles, vii. (1801) 336, ix. (1804) 254, 256; James Raine, Priory of Hexham, vol. i., Newcastle, 1864; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, i. 677, 712, 714 sqq., 721 sqq., 734-735; DCB, i. 11-12. Acacius of Constantinople ACACIUS OF CONSTANTINOPLE. See [42]Monophysites. Acacius of Melitene ACACIUS OF MELITENE, mel-i-tî´ne: A bitter opponent of Nestorius in the Council of Ephesus in 431; d. after 437. A homily delivered by him at Ephesus and two letters to Cyril are in MPG, lxxvii. 1467-72. Melitene was a town of Armenia Secunda, the modern Malatie. G. Krüger. Bibliography: M. Le Quien, Oriens Christianus, i. 441, Paris, 1762; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, ii. 271, 275, 314; DCB, i. 14-15. Acca ACCA, ak´k?: Fifth bishop of Hexham (18 m. w. of Newcastle, Northumberland); d. there 740. He was the devoted friend of [43]Wilfrid of York, shared his missionary labors in Friesland and Sussex, accompanied him to Rome in 704, and succeeded him as bishop in 709. He was also the intimate friend of Bede, who received help and encouragement from Acca in his scholarly labors, and dedicated to him his Hexameron and several of his commentaries. Acca seems to have been worthy of his friends. He completed and adorned the buildings begun at Hexham by Wilfrid and collected there a large and excellent library. He was a good musician, and induced a famous singer, Maban by name, to come to Hexham and instruct the rude Northumbrians. In 732 he was expelled from his bishopric for some unknown reason, but returned before his death. Bibliography: Bede, Hist. eccl., v. 19-20; J. Raine, Priory of Hexham, i. pp. xxx-xxxv., 31-36, Newcastle, 1864; W. Bright, Early English Church History, pp. 447-448, Oxford, 1897. Accad ACCAD (AKKAD). See [44]Babylonia, IV., § 11. Acceptants ACCEPTANTS: The name of that party which in the Jansenist controversy accepted the bull Unigenitus. See [45]Jansen, Cornelius; [46]Jansenism. Accolti ACCOLTI, ak-k?l´tî: The name of two cardinals who have sometimes been confused. 1. Pietro Accolti: "The Cardinal of Ancona"; b. at Florence 1455; d. at Rome Dec. 12, 1532. He studied law, but later entered the Church, and was made bishop of Ancona and cardinal by Julius II. He was the author of the famous bull of 1520 against Luther. 2. Benedetto Accolti: "The Cardinal of Ravenna," nephew of the preceding; b. at Florence, Oct. 29, 1497; d. there Sept. 21, 1549. He belonged to the college of abbreviators under Leo X., and was made a cardinal by Clement VII. in 1527. In 1535 Paul III. for some obscure reason imprisoned him in the castle of St. Angelo; and he obtained his release after some months only by payment of a large sum of money. He left some Latin writings including a few poems (published in Quinque illustrium poetarum carmina, Florence, 1562). Accommodation ACCOMMODATION. Greek Philosophical and Theological Usages (§ 1). Required by Ethics (§ 2). Negative Accommodation (§ 3). Positive Accommodation (§ 4). Modern Theory of Accommodation (§ 5). Untenableness of the Theory (§ 6). When Accommodation is Admissible (§ 7). Accommodation and the New Testament (§ 8). Controversy in the Roman Catholic Church (§ 9). 1. Greek Philosophical and Theological Usages. The word "Accommodation" is used in theology in two senses: (1) the wider, that of a general ethical conception; and (2) the narrower, by certain writers of the latter half of the eighteenth century, in reference to a particular method of Biblical exegesis. The ethical reserve denoted by this term was known to the Greek philosophers as synkatabasis, and the same word is used by the Greek Fathers for that method of teaching which adapts itself to the needs or to the preconceived ideas of the scholars; the expression kat' oikonomian didaskein is also employed, whence the word "economy" is often applied to this method by later writers. 2. Required by Ethics. Such accommodation or economy is required by ethics in two cases: (1) when, in a spirit of love, it spares a condition of ignorance existing in another's mind, or (2) when, in the same spirit, it keeps back some truth which the imperfect state of development of the other is not ready to receive. Love bids to have patience with erring or weak consciences, so long as they are unconscious of their error or weakness, and therefore might be more injured than helped by a too hasty attack (I Cor. viii. 9-13). The aim must be improvement, not punishment--that one may "by all means save some." This consideration, however, is not due to conscious and obstinate sinners, in which case it would be a denial of duty for the sake of pleasing men. But this duty has its limits; it imports and enforces certain ethical requirements and certain spiritual truths; and in both cases its action must be adapted to the capacity of the receiver. The very nature of the human mind prescribes gradual progress in knowledge; and thus Christian teaching often requires reserve and silence, where strict enforcement of the command or full unfolding of the truth might give offense. Thus Christ kept back from his disciples certain things which they could not yet bear (John xvi. 12); and thus Paul does not exact the same requirements from all members of the churches under his care (I Cor. vii. 17, 26, 35 sqq.), feeding the "babes in Christ" with "milk, and not with meat" (I Cor. iii. 2). The Christian teacher can not, indeed, preach a different gospel to different hearers; but the manner of the preaching and the selection of material will vary with the stages in spiritual growth attained by the hearers. To this manner belong such things as the popular exposition of the truth, the use of comparisons and examples, and argumenta ad hominem. This kind of accommodation is not only not blameworthy, but is prescribed by the example of Christ. 3. Negative Accommodation. The use of accommodation in matter, as distinguished from manner, is more disputable. It may be either negative, dissimulatio, when the teacher passes over in silence the existence of erroneous ideas in his scholars; or positive, simulatio, when he distinctly approves such erroneous ideas or consciously sets them forth as the truth, with the purpose in both cases of thus leading by an indirect road to the truth. Negative accommodation may be justified pedagogically by the fact that no teacher is in a position to remove all obstacles at one stroke, the gradual process being equivalent to a toleration of a certain amount of error for the time. Thus no reproach can lie against Christ because in some particulars he allowed his disciples to remain temporarily under the influence of false impressions, as long as he did this not by declared approval and with the distinct looking forward to the time when the Spirit of Truth should lead them into all truth; this covers the Jewish beliefs and practises which they were allowed to retain in his very presence. The apostles also tolerated the continued existence of numerous ancient errors in their converts, being sure that these would fall away with their gradual growth in Christian knowledge (I Cor. ix. 20 sqq.; Rom. xiv. 1 sqq.; Heb. v. 11 sqq.). 4. Positive Accommodation. The case is quite different, however, with regard to positive accommodation in the matter of the teaching. There is no purely objective system of commandments, the same for all alike. Ethical law is subjective, varying with the individual and his circumstances--position, calling, age, sex, and the like. One is not to be a slave to prevailing customs, but is bound to take them into account, so as not to offend others. The same thing applies to prevailing beliefs and views; a man has to consider that he will be judged by his contemporaries according to the standards of the time and place; nay, that if he is to be understood by them at all, he must accommodate himself to their standpoint, and speak to a certain extent as they speak. This leads to a point which has been in the past vehemently discussed by theologians. The truth just stated was pressed by certain writers for the purpose of rendering more acceptable their doctrines in regard to revelation. It is their attitude which gave rise to the narrower meaning of the word "accommodation." 5. Modern Theory of Accommodation. A transition to the theory that many things in the Bible are to be taken as spoken only in this accommodated sense is to be found in the treatise of Zachariä, Erklärung der Herablassung Gottes zu den Menschen (Schwerin, 1762): it asserted that the revelations of God in the Old Testament, the establishment of the old and new covenants, the incarnation of Christ--in other words, the facts of revelation in general--were only set forth as an "accommodation" of God to men. It was seen that this struck at the very root of the Christian faith; and the question was hotly discussed how far many Biblical expressions were mere concessions to the ideas prevalent at the time. The controversy lasted until the rise of the modern critical school, early in the nineteenth century, afforded an easier way of meeting the difficulties which these theologians had thus sought to avoid. With the help of their theory, such writers as Behn, Senf, Teller, Van Hemert, and Vogel sought to bring about a harmony between their views of reason and the Scriptural expressions. Thus, for example, they got rid of the Messianic prophecies which, they said, Jesus referred to himself merely to convince the Jews that he was the Messiah, without himself believing that they were written of the Messiah; the doctrine of angels and devils was simply a use of the common conceptions; that of the atonement becomes only a condescension of the same kind to popular ideas, intended to reconcile the Jews to the loss of their sacrifices. 6. Untenableness of the Theory. In more recent times this theory has been increasingly recognized as scientifically and theologically untenable. It is of course, obvious that many expressions of Christ and the apostles relate to merely local and temporal circumstances, and do not contain permanent rules of conduct. The apparent contradictions between revelation and the facts of physics and chemistry offer no more difficulty; Christ did not come to teach natural science; and he was obliged to adapt himself to current forms of expression in order to be understood, just as one speaks of the rising and setting of the sun, when he knows it is the motion of the earth and not that of the sun which is referred to. But there is no case of concession to real error, still less of assertion of error, in any of this accommodation. 7. When Accommodation is Admissible. As to the general ethical use of accommodation, a case may arise in which one is bound by the law of love not to make use of a liberty which in the abstract he possesses, lest the weaker brethren should be scandalized. From this point of view Paul lays down his rule in regard to the eating of meats offered to idols (I Cor. viii. 13). In like manner one may be bound, like Paul again, by the love of his neighbor to do something he would not otherwise do (Acts xvi. 3, xxi. 17 sqq.). Paul's acceptance of Timothy's circumcision was no concession to error; he did not cease to teach that the rite was unnecessary for Gentile converts; and he stoutly resisted an attempt to impose it on Titus (Gal. ii. 3-5). Limitations which he willingly imposed on his own personal liberty in the accommodation of pastoral wisdom would have been unworthy weakness if he had yielded to them when imposed by others when the circumstances did not justify them. This is the standpoint of the Formula Concordiæ (art. x.) in reference to the [47]Adiaphora. In such matters, what in itself is innocent and may be used with Christian freedom becomes, when it is sought to be imposed as an obligation, an attack on evangelical liberty which must be resisted. (Rudolf Hofmann.) 8. Accommodation and the New Testament. The theory of theological accommodation, so far as it is drawn from the New Testament, grows out of a particular conception of the knowledge of Christ and the scope of inspiration. (1) If one holds that Christ possessed complete knowledge of all matters relating to the natural world, the Old Testament, the events of his own time, and the future of the kingdom of God on earth, he may affirm either that all of Christ's teaching on these subjects is authoritative and final, or else that in many instances he fitted his teaching to the immediate needs of his hearers; in the latter case, one could not be sure as to the precise nature of the objective fact. (2) If, how ever, it be alleged that Jesus's intelligence followed the laws of human growth, that he shared the common scientific, historical, and critical beliefs of his day, and that for us his knowledge is restricted to the spiritual content of revelation, then his allusions to the natural world, to persons, events, books, and authors of the Old Testament, to demons, and the like are to be interpreted according to universal laws of human intelligence; thus the principle of accommodation drops away. (3) In like manner, inspiration may be conceived of either as equipping the sacred writers with an accurate knowledge concerning all things to which they refer, and yet leading them to fit their communications to the temporary prejudice or ignorance of their readers, or as quickening their consciousness concerning spiritual truth, while they were left unillumined about matters which belong to literary, historical, or scientific inquiry. It is thus evident that the question of theological accommodation in the New Testament turns in part on a solution of two previous questions--the content of our Lord's knowledge, and the scope of inspiration in the authors of the various books (cf. C. J. Ellicott, Christus Comprobator, London, 1892; J. Moorhouse, The Teaching of Christ, ib. 1892; H. C. Powell, The Principle of the Incarnation, ib. 1896; G. B. Stevens, The Theology of the New Testament, New York, 1899; L. A. Muirhead, The Eschatology of Jesus, London, 1904). C. A. B. 9. Controversy in the Roman Catholic Church. Under the title "Accommodation Controversy" is also frequently understood the long and bitter dispute between the Jesuits and the Dominicans as to the extent of lawful concessions to the prejudices of their pagan hearers by missionaries. The Jesuits were the first to preach Christianity in China--Xavier went there in 1552. They were attacked by the Dominicans and Franciscans, when, forty years later, these orders entered the same field, on the charge of having made an improper compromise with Chinese beliefs, especially in regard to the practise of ancestor worship and to the name adopted to designate the Supreme Being in Chinese. They maintained, however, that such concessions were an inevitable condition of the toleration of Christian missions in the empire. The "Chinese rites" were provisionally forbidden by Innocent X. in 1645, but were again tolerated by Alexander VII. in 1656, on the ground that they might be regarded as purely civil ceremonies. Clement IX. took a middle course in 1669; but at the end of the century the controversy broke out with renewed violence, to be terminated only by a bull of Clement XI. in 1715, absolutely prohibiting the "Chinese rites." The legate Mezzabarba attempted to mitigate the strict enforcement of this ruling; but Benedict XIV. confirmed it in 1742, with the result of provoking a severe persecution which almost exterminated Christianity in China. A somewhat similar controversy raged in the eighteenth century over the so-called Malabar rites, terminated in the same sense by the bull Omnium sollicitudinum of Benedict XIV. (1742), the pope refusing, even at the cost of imperiling the future of missions, to permit any compromise with paganism. A heated controversy on the general subject of accommodation was provoked in England by the publication of No. 80 in the Oxford Tracts for the Times, On Reserve in Communicating Religious Knowledge, written by [48]Isaac Williams, which caused the author to be accused of Jesuitical and un-English insincerity, and provoked additional antagonism to the Oxford movement. Bibliography: On the general subject: K. F. Senff, Versuch über die Herablassung Gottes zu den Menschen, Leipsic, 1792; W. A. Teller, Die Religion der Vollkommern, Berlin, 1792; P. van Hemert, Accommodation, Dortmund, 1797. On the Accommodation Controversy: G. Daniel, Histoire apologétique de la conduite des Jésuites de la Chine, in Recueil des divers ouvrages, vol. iii., 3 vols., Paris, 1724; T. M. Mamachi, Originum et antiquitatum christianarum libri xx, ii. 373, 424, 425-426, 441-442; 6 vols., Rome, 1749-55; G. Pray, Historia controversiarum de ritibus sinicis, Budapest, 1789. Achelis, Ernst Christian ACHELIS, ERNST CHRISTIAN: Reformed Church of Germany; b. at Bremen Jan. 13, 1838. He studied theology at Heidelberg and Halle from 1857 to 1860, and was pastor successively at Arsten near Bremen (1860-62), Hastedt, a suburb of Bremen (1862-75), and Barmen-Unterbarmen (1875-82). Since 1882 he has been professor of practical theology in the University of Marburg. He is president of the Marburg branch of the Evangelischer Bund, a member of the Freie deutsche evangelische Konferenz, and since 1888 has been the representative of the University of Marburg at the Hessian General Synod at Cassel, while in 1897 he was appointed a royal Konsistorialrat. He was created a knight of the Order of the Red Eagle, fourth class, in 1896 and of the Order of the Prussian Crown in 1905. His theological position is that of "the ancient faith, but modern theology." His writings, in addition to numerous articles in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie and other standard works of reference, as well as monographs in theological magazines, include: Die biblischen Thatsachen und die religiöse Bedeutung ihrer Geschichtlichkeit (Gotha, 1869); Der Krieg im Lichte der christlichen Moral (Bremen, 1871); Die Bergpredigt nach Matthäus und Lukas, exegetisch und kritisch untersucht (Bielefeld, 1875); Parteiwesen und Evangelium (Barmen, 1878); Die Entstehungszeit von Luthers geistlichen Liedern (Marburg, 1884); Die evangelische Predigt eine Grossmacht (1887); Aus dem akademischen Gottesdienst in Marburg (1888; a collection of sermons delivered in 1886-88); Die Gestaltung des evangelischen Gottesdienstes (Herborn, 1888); Gottfried Menkers Homilien in Auswahl und mit Einleitung (2 vols., Gotha, 1888); Christusreden (3 vols., Freiburg, 1890-97; new edition, in 1 vol., Leipsic, 1898; collected sermons); Lehrbuch der praktischen Theologie (2 vols., Freiburg, 1890-91; revised edition, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1898); Zur Symbolfrage (Berlin, 1892); Grundriss der praktischen Theologie (Freiburg, 1893; 5th ed., 1903); Achelis und Lachese: Die Homiletik und die Katechetik des Andreas Hyperius, verdeutscht und mit Einleitungen versehen (Berlin, 1901); Björnsons Ueber unsere Kraft und das Wesen des Christentums (1902); and Der Dekalog als katechetisches Lehrstück (Giessen, 1905). Achelis, Hans ACHELIS, HANS: Reformed Church of Germany; b. at Bremen Mar. 16, 1865. He studied at Erlangen, Berlin, and Marburg (Ph.D., Marburg, 1887); became privat-docent at Göttingen in 1893; was appointed professor there in 1897; went to Königsberg in 1901, and to Halle in 1907. His theological position is that of a "modern representative of the ancient faith." He has published: Das Symbol des Fisches (Marburg, 1888); Acta sanctorum Nerei et Achillei (TU, Leipsic, 1890); Die ältesten Quellen des orientalischen Kirchenrechts, I. Canones Hippolyti (1891), II. Die syrischen Didaskalia, übersetzt und erklärt (1903; in collaboration with J. Flemming); Hippolyt-studien (1897); Die Martyrologien, ihre Geschichte und ihr Wert (Berlin, 1900); Virgines subintroductæ. Ein Beitrag zu I. Kor. vii (Leipsic, 1902); and an edition of the works of Hippolytus, in collaboration with G. L. Bonwetsch (Leipsic, 1897). Achery, Jean Luc ACHERY, ??´´shê´´rî´, JEAN LUC d' (Dom Luc d'Achery; Lat. Dacherius): Benedictine; b. at St. Quentin (80 m. n.e. of Paris), Picardy, 1609; d. in Paris Apr. 29, 1685. He entered the Benedictine order while still very young, and in 1632 joined the congregation of St. Maur at Vendôme. He was of weak constitution and suffered much physically, which led his superiors to send him to Paris. There he became librarian of St. Germain-des-Prés, and for forty-five years lived solely for his books and scholarly work. He took especial delight in searching out unknown books and bringing unprinted manuscripts to publication, and was ever ready to help others from his vast store of learning. His chief work was the Spicilegium veterum aliquot scriptorum qui in Galliæ bibliothecis, maxime Benedictinorum, latuerant (13 vols., Paris, 1655-77; 2d ed., by De la Barre, with comparison of later-found manuscripts by Baluze and Martène, 3 vols., 1723, better arranged but less correct). He edited the first edition of the Epistle of Barnabas (1645), the life and works of Lanfranc (1648), the works of Guibert of Nogent (1651), and the Regula solitariorum of a certain priest Grimlaic (1656); he compiled a catalogue of ascetic writings (1648); and he gathered the material for the Acta sanctorum ordinis S. Benedicti, which was published by his scholar and assistant, Mabillon (9 vols., 1668-1701), and for which the latter has usually received the credit. (C. Pfender.) Bibliography: L. E. Dupin, Bibliotheque des auteurs ecclésiastiques, xviii. 1445, Amsterdam ed.; Tassin, Histoire littéraire de la congrégation de St. Maur, pp. 103 sqq., Brussels, 1770. Achterfeldt Johann Heinrich ACHTERFELDT JOHANN HEINRICH. See [49]Hermes, Georg. Acoemeti ACOEMETI, ??-sem´e-t?i or ??´´cei-mê´tî,-tê ("Sleepless"): An order of monks who sang the divine praises in their monasteries night and day without cessation, dividing themselves into three choirs for the purpose and undertaking the service in rotation. A certain Alexander (ASB, Jan., i. 1018-28) founded their first monastery on the Euphrates about the year 400, and a second at Constantinople. The abbot Marcellus spread the custom in the East. Monks from his monastery were transferred in 459 by the consular Studius to the monastery newly founded by him in Constantinople and called, after his name, the Studium, which later became famous. The members of the order are sometimes called Studites. In the controversy with the [50]Theopaschites they opposed the views of the papal legate, and in 534 they were disavowed and excommunicated by Pope John II. G. Krüger. Acolyte ACOLYTE: A member of the highest of the minor orders of the Roman Catholic Church. The order was established in the fourth or fifth decade of the third century, at the same time as the other minor orders, probably by Pope Fabian (236-250), but was not known to the East. The name (from the Gk. akolouthos, "a follower, attendant") indicates that the acolyte was originally the personal attendant of the bishop or of the presbyters. In this capacity he appears in Cyprian's epistles, where acolytes carry letters and fraternal gifts as directed by their bishop; and the same thing is seen in Augustine's time. This close connection with the higher clergy explains the position of the acolytes at the head of the minor orders. In the year 251 the local Roman Church had not less than forty-two acolytes (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., VI. xliii. 11). When the canonical age for the different orders was fixed, acolytes were required to be under thirty (Siricius, Ad Himerium, xiii.; 385 A.D.). In the Middle Ages the liturgical functions of the acolyte assumed greater prominence, including the charge of the altar-lights and the eucharistic wine. In Rome the acolytes were divided by special assignment among the various churches and regiones of the city. Since the close of the Middle Ages, the order has had only a nominal existence, though the Council of Trent (Session xxiii., De reform., xvii.) expressed a desire to see it restored to its former practical activity. In his investigation of the origin of the minor orders, Harnack has given Fabian as the founder of that of the acolytes; but he considers that it was an imitation of the pagan ritual system, in which special attendants (calatores) were assigned to the priests. However, this and the other minor orders may perfectly well have grown out of the needs of the Church without any copying of the pagan system. H. Achelis. Since the Middle Ages the order has been understood as conferring the right to act as official assistant of the subdeacon in a solemn mass. No canonical age is now explicitly prescribed, but the requirement of a knowledge of Latin excludes the very young. J. T. C. Bibliography: Bingham, Origines, book i.; J. Mabillon, Museum Italicum, ii. 84, Paris, 1687-89; L. A. Muratori, Liturgia Romana vetus, ii. 407, Venice, 1748; A. Harnack, Die Quellen der sogenannten apostolischen Kirchenordnung nebst einer Untersuchung über die Ursprung des Lectorats und der anderen niederen Weihen, TU, ii. 5 (1886), 94 sqq.; R. Sohm, Kirchenrecht, i. 128-137, Leipsic, 1892. Acosta, Jose de ACOSTA, JOSE DE: Jesuit; b. at Medina del Campo (26 m. s.s.w. of Valladolid), Spain, about 1539; d. at Salamanca as rector of the university Feb. 11, 1600. He joined the Jesuits as early as 1553. In 1571 he went to the West Indies and later became second provincial of Peru. He wrote Confessionario para los curas de Indios, in Kechua and Aymara (1583), perhaps the first book printed at Lima; a catechism in Spanish and the native tongues (Lima, 1585); De natura novi orbis et de promulgatione evangelii apud barbaros (Salamanca, 1589), which he afterward translated into Spanish and incorporated in the Historia natural y moral de las Indias (Seville, 1590; Eng. transl., The Natural and Moral History of the East and West Indies, London, 1604), one of the most valuable of the early works on America; De Christo revelato et de temporibus novissimis (Rome, 1590); Concilium provinciale Limense in anno MDLXXXIII. (Madrid, 1590); Concionum tomi iii. (Salamanca, 1596). Acosta, Uriel ACOSTA, URIEL (originally Gabriel da Costa): Jewish rationalist; b. at Oporto, Portugal, 1594; d. at Amsterdam 1647. He belonged to a noble family of Jewish origin but Christian confession, and was educated as a Roman Catholic. In early manhood he wished to return to the faith of his fathers; and, as an open change from Christianity to Judaism was not allowed in Portugal, he fled to Amsterdam, where he was circumcised and admitted to the synagogue. Disappointed in the teaching and practise of the Amsterdam Jews, he criticized them unsparingly; in particular he aroused their resentment by declaring that the Law made no mention of the immortality of the soul or a future life. After the publication of his Examen dos tradiçoens phariseas conferidas con a ley escrita (1624) they put him out of the synagogue and brought him to trial before the magistrates on a charge of atheism. He was imprisoned, fined, and his book was burned. After some years he made public recantation of his alleged errors, was scourged in the synagogue, and trampled upon at the door. According to rumor, he died by his own hand. He left an autobiography, Exemplar humanæ vitæ, published by Philip Limborch (Gouda, 1687; republished in Latin and German, with introduction, Leipsic, 1847). Bibliography: T. Whiston, The Remarkable Life of Uriel Acosta, an Eminent Free-Thinker, London, 1740; H. Jellinek, U. Acosta's Leben und Lehre, Zerbst, 1847; I. da Costa, Israel en de volke, Haarlem, 1849, Eng. transl., London, 1850; H. Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, 3d ed., x. 120-128, 399-401. Acta Martyrum, Acta Sanctorum ACTA MARTYRUM, ACTA SANCTORUM, ac´ta m??r´ter-um, ac´ta sanc´´tO´rum. I. Acts of Martyrs. Acta martyrum sincera (§ 1). Legendary Acts (§ 2). Calendaria and Gesta martyrum (§ 3). II. Histories of the Saints. In the Churches of the East (§ 1). In the Western Church (§ 2). English Lives of Saints (§ 3). By Acta Martyrum and Acta Sanctorum are meant collections of biographies of holy persons, especially of the older Church. The former title refers particularly to those who have suffered death for the faith; the latter is more general, including all "saints," i.e., Christians canonized by the Church on account of their eminently pious and pure lives. I. Acts of Martyrs. 1. Acta Martyrum Sincera. (Acta sive passiones martyrum; Martyrologia): The oldest authentic sources for the history of the early martyrs are the court records of the Roman empire (Acta proconsularia, præsidialia). They are not preserved in their original form, but more or less complete extracts from them constitute the kernel of the passion histories recorded by Christian hands; and they are acknowledged to be the authentic bases of these histories (cf. the works of Le Blant and Egli cited below), which, so far as they are based upon these official documents and thus demonstrate that they belong to the class of acta martyrum sincera, are either written in the form of a letter or are devotional narratives without the epistolary character (passiones, gesta martyrum). The former class includes the oldest of these histories; the chief examples are: the Passio Polycarpi, in a letter of the congregation of Smyrna, of which extracts are given by Eusebius (Hist. eccl., IV. xv.), while the complete text is handed down in five Greek manuscripts; the letter of the churches of Lyons and Vienne to the Christians of Asia and Phrygia concerning their sufferings under Marcus Aurelius in 177 (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., V. i.-iii.); the report of the Alexandrian bishop Dionysius to the Antiochian Fabianus on the sufferings of the Christians of his church during the persecutions under Decius (Eusebius, Hist. eccl., VI. xli.-xlii.); and certain reports concerning North-African martyrs and confessors of the same time, in Cyprian's collection of epistles (xx., xxi., xxii., xxvii., xxxix., xl., etc.). Passions in narrative force are more numerous. Among the oldest and historically most important are: From the second century, the Acta Justini philosophi et martyris; the Acta Carpi, Papyli, et Agathonicæ (cf. Eusebius, IV. xv. 48); the Passio sanctorum Scilitanorum of the year 180, a report of the martyrdom at Carthage of six Numidian Christians under the proconsul Vigellius Saturninus July 17, 180, distinguished by its strictly objective form, reproducing the official proconsular acts without Christian additions; the Acta Apollonii, belonging to the time of Commodus (cf. Eusebius, V. xxi.). To the third century belong the Passio Perpetuæ et Felicitatis, covering the martyrdom of certain Carthaginian Christians, belonging probably to Tertullian's congregation, Mar. 7, 203; the martyrdom of Pionius (cf. Eusebius, IV. xv. 47), of Achatius, and of Conon, all three belonging to the epoch of Decius; the Acta Proconsularia which record the trial and execution of Cyprian of Carthage under Valerianus, Sept. 14, 258. Finally, belonging to the beginning of the fourth century (the time of persecution under Diocletian and his coemperors, 303-323), there are the records collected by Eusebius, which now form an appendix to book VIII. of his church history, and treat of the Palestinian martyrs of that time, as well as somewhat numerous martyria of the period, to which must be ascribed a greater or less historical value (such as the Testamentum xl martyrum from Sebaste in Armenia, belonging to the time of Licinius, the newly discovered Greek text of which has full documentary value). 2. Legendary Acts. Much greater than the number of such acta martyrum sincera sive genuina is that of the non-authentic histories of martyrs which contain little or nothing of contemporaneous notices and have an essentially legendary character. To these belong, among others: two accounts of the martyrdom of Ignatius of Antioch; the Martyrium Colbertinum and the Martyrium Vaticanum; the Acta Nerei et Achillei; the Passio Felicitatis et septem filiorum; the Acta S. Cypriani et Justinæ; the legends of [51]St. Agnes, [52]St. Cecilia, [53]St. Catherine, [54]St. Maurice, and others. 3. Calendaria and Gesta Martyrum. After the cessation of persecutions the memory of the martyrs was cherished mainly by two kinds of written records: (1) calendaria, i.e., lists of the names of martyrs in calendar form for the purpose of fixing their memorial days for the liturgical use of individual congregations or greater church dioceses; (2) more detailed memorial books (gesta martyrum) for the purpose of private devotion and instruction, incorporating also longer passion narratives, and avoiding as much as possible the putting together of mere names in calendary statistical form. Of the latter kind may have been that copious collection of martyrological material from all branches of the Church which Eusebius composed in addition to the booklet on the Palestinian martyrs already mentioned (cf. his references to this collection, Hist. eccl., IV. xv. 47; V. Proem., iv. 3; also V. xxi. 5), but which was lost at a very early period (cf. Gregory the Great, Epist., viii. 29). Biographical and other notices were gradually added to the names of the martyrs in many of the calendaria; and by such inclusion of general hagiological matter they somewhat approached the character of the devotional reading-books. This enrichment of the calendaria with material not strictly martyrological in its nature (i.e., additions of a narrative character, not mere names) commenced in the West. While a calendarium of the Syriac Church from the year 412 (ed. W. Wright, 1865) still shows a strictly martyrological character, the old calendar of the Roman congregation from the year 354 (ed. Ægidius Bucher, Antwerp, 1633; T. Mommsen, in Abhandlungen der sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, 1850) gives, besides the names of martyrs, those of Roman bishops (twelve in number). The same is true of the Calendarium Africanum vetus from the year 500, edited by Mabillon (Vetera Analecta, iii. 398 sqq.). The martyrologium of the Church of Rome mentioned by Gregory the Great in his epistle to Eulogius of Alexandria (Epist., viii. 29) consisted of martyrological and non-martyrological (especially papal) elements, and had even admitted the older Roman festival calendar. The so-called Martyrologium Hieronymianum is an enlarged revision of this Roman calendar. In its present form it is a compilation edited about the year 600 at Auxerre in Gaul; but it was previously recast in upper Italy, as is indicated in the correspondence of the alleged author Jerome, with the bishops Chromatius of Aquileia and Heliodorus of Altinum, which stands at the beginning. It is a medley of names of places and saints, data of martyrs, and the like, collected from older local and provincial calendars. The Syriac calendarium already mentioned was used (in a somewhat enlarged form) by the compiler as a source of information for the East; for North Africa a Calendarium Carthaginense (probably from pre-Vandalic times) was used; and for Rome, no doubt, the Roman martyrologium to which Gregory the Great referred. Jerome probably contributed nothing to the collection (cf. the critical edition of the work, ed. J. B. de Rossi and L. Duchesne, from numerous manuscripts, in ASB, Nov., ii., 1894, and the criticism of B. Krusch in Neues Archiv für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde, xx., 1895, 437-440). To still later times belong similar compilations ascribed to the Venerable Bede, to Florus Magister of Lyons (c. 840), to the abbot Wandelbert of Prüm (848), and others (see below, [55]II., 2). II. Histories of the Saints (Acta sive vitæ sanctorum): From the end of the fourth century, under the influence of the Vitæ patrum, disseminated at first from the Eastern but soon also from the Western monasteries, true biographies of the saints became much more numerous. The biographies contained in the Historia monachorum of Rufinus, the Historia Lausiaca of Palladius, the Historia religiosa of Theodoret, as well as in other works like the Pratum spirituale of Johannes Moschus, and the Vitæ patrum and Libri miraculorum of Gregory of Tours, furnish much more devotional matter than the histories of martyrs of former centuries. This hagiological literature, of monastic origin, had the advantage that it was not so much exposed to suspicion of falsification by heretics or the incompetent (idiotæ) as were productions of the older passion literature (the reading of which in divine service in the Roman Church was forbidden by edict of Gelasius I. in 494). Under the influence of the new kind of biographies of monks and hermits a general hagiological element entered also to an ever-increasing degree into the martyrological collections of the older type, and thus brought about their constant expansion. 1. In the Churches of the East. In the Churches of the East, the older calendary statistical form of the compilations, confining itself to martyrological material proper and serving only liturgical purposes, was still cultivated, especially in the so-called menologia, or monthly registers, as well as in the liturgical anthologia ("collections"). But besides these arose hagiological collections of considerable copiousness: the menæa arranged in a calendary form and divided according to months; and shorter, condensed synaxaria (from synaxis, "religious gathering") or extracts. In the Byzantine Church the large collection of legends by Simeon Metaphrastes (10th cent.), which is preserved in a greatly revised and corrupt form, exercised much influence (see [56]Simeon Metaphrastes). Of the editors of the martyrologies and menoea literature of the Syriac Church in the earlier time, [57]Stephan Evodius Assemani deserves mention, more recently Paul Bedjan (Acta martyrum et sanctorum Syriace, 7 vols., Paris, 1890-97); of those of the Russian Orthodox Church, [58]Joseph Simonius Assemani, and in recent times J. E. Martinov (Annus ecclesiasticus Græco-Slavicus, Brussels, 1863,--ASB, Oct., xi. 1-385) and V. Jagic ("The Menæa of the Russian Church from Manuscripts of 1095-97," St. Petersburg, 1886, Russian); of those of the Armenian Church, the [59]Mekhitarists, who published a martyrologium in two volumes at Venice in 1874; and of those of the Coptic Church, H. Hyvernat (Les Actes des martyrs de l'Égypte, Paris, 1886 sqq.). 2. In the Western Church. In the Western Church, during the Middle Ages the hagiological literature, critically considered, deteriorated. Ado of Vienne and Usuardus (both c. 870); the author of the Martyrologium Sangalense (c. 900); Wolfard of Herrieden (c. 910); later, especially Jacobus de Voragine (d. 1298), author of the so-called "Golden Legend," and Petrus de Natalibus (d. 1382), author of a Catalogus sanctorum (often reprinted since 1493), are the main representatives of the writers of this legendary literature, of whose eccentricities and extravagancies humanists and reformers often complain. Since the end of the fifteenth century efforts have been made to publish critically genuine and older texts. Early attempts were: the Sanctuarium of Boninus Mombritius (Venice, 1474; Rome, 1497); the first (and only) volume of the Martyrum agones of Jacobus Faber Stapulensis (1525); and the De probatis sanctorum historiis of the Carthusian Laurentius Surius (d.1578; arranged according to the calendar; 6 vols. folio, Cologne, 1570 sqq.; 2d ed., 7 vols., 1581 sqq.). As concerns the abundance of matter and critical treatment of the documents, these first labors of modern times are far surpassed by the gigantic hagiological work the Acta Sanctorum quotquot toto orbe coluntur, the publication of which began at Antwerp in 1643. It was conceived by the Jesuit [60]Heribert Rosweyde; and after his death (1629) was undertaken by Jan Bolland and others. From the name of the first actual editor it is generally known as the Acta Sanctorum Bollandi or Bollandistarum (cited in this encyclopedia as ASB). With the exception of a period somewhat less than fifty years, consequent upon the disturbances of the French Revolution, the labor of preparation and publication has proceeded continuously to the present time, when the editors (following the calendary arrangement) are engaged upon the month of November (see [61]Bolland, Jan, Bollandists). More or less valuable are the extracts from the Bollandist main work in collections like that of Alban Butler (The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Other Principal Saints, 4 vols., London, 1756-59; see [62]Butler, Alban), his French imitator, the Abbé J. F. Godescard (Vies des Pères, des martyrs et autres principaux saints, traduit librement de l'anglais d' Alban Butler, 12 vols., Paris, 1763 sqq.), and A. Räss and N. Weiss, the German successors of both Butler and Godescard (Leben der Heiligen, 23 vols., Mainz, 1823 sqq.); mention may also be made of a later French work by Paul Guérin, Les Petits Bollandistes (7th ed., 18 vols., Paris, 1876). In lexical form the lives of the saints are treated by the Abbé Pétin (Dictionnaire hagiographique, 2 vols., Paris, 1850) and J. E. Stadler and F. J. Heim (Vollständiges Heiligen lexikon, 5 vols., Augsburg, 1858 sqq.). There are also hagiological collections devoted to the members of particular orders, of which the Acta Sanctorum ordinis S. Benedicti of J. Mabillon and others (9 vols., Paris, 1668-1701) is the most important. O. Zöckler. 3. English Lives of Saints. The best-known work in English is that of Alban Butler, already mentioned. It is written in a heavy eighteenth century style. Much pleasanter reading is the work of Sabine Baring-Gould, The Lives of the Saints (15 vols., London, 1872-77; new illustrated ed., revised and enlarged, 16 vols., 1897-98). The author is a High-church Anglican, not untouched by the modern critical spirit. He states in his introduction that his work is not intended to supplant Butler, being prepared on somewhat different lines. Butler "confined his attention to the historical outlines of the saintly lives, and he rarely filled them in with anecdote. Yet it is the little details of a man's life that give it character and impress themselves on the memory. People forget the age and parentage of St. Gertrude, but they remember the mouse running up her staff." The style is diversified by occasionally introducing translations and accounts by other writers. The Sanctorale Catholicum, or Book of Saints, by Robert Owen (London, 1880), is a single octavo volume of 516 pages, provided with critical, exegetical, and historical notes. The Saints in Christian Art (3 vols., London, 1901-04), by Mrs. Arthur George Bell (née Nancy Meugens, known also by the nom de plume "N. d'Anvers"), contains sketches of the lives of the saints treated, written with little discrimination as to sources and in an uncritical, credulous spirit. The Saints and Servants of God is a series of lives, original and translated, edited by Frederick William Faber and continued by the Congregation of St. Philip Neri (42 vols., London, 1847-56). A second series was begun in 1873, in which the lives for the most part are translations of those drawn up for the processes of canonization or beatification. Another series, consisting of single-volume lives of various saints, specially prepared by modern writers, is being issued in authorized English translation under the editorship of Henri Joly for the original (French) volumes, and of the Rev. Father George Tyrrell, S.J., for the translations (Paris and London, 1898 sqq.). A number of works are devoted to saints of the British Isles. As to the older works of this character Baring-Gould remarks (Introduction, i., pp. xxix.-xxx., ed. 1897): "With regard to England there is a Martyrology of Christ Church, Canterbury, written in the thirteenth century, and now in the British Museum; also a Martyrology written between 1220 and 1224 from the southwest of England; this also is in the British Museum. A Saxon Martyrology, incomplete, is among the Harleian MSS. in the same museum; it dates from the fourteenth century. There is a transcript among the Sloane MSS. of a Martyrology of North-English origin, but this also is incomplete. There are others, later, of less value. The most interesting is the Martiloge in Englysshe after the use of the churche of Salisbury, printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1526, reissued by the Henry Bradshaw Society in 1893. To these Martyrologies must be added the Legenda of John of Tynemouth, 1350; that of Capgrave, 1450, his Nova legenda, printed in 1516; Whitford's Martyrology, 1526; Wilson's Martyrologe, 1st ed., 1608, 2d. ed., 1640 and Bishop Challoner's Memorial of Ancient British Piety, 1761." Bishop Challoner's larger Britannia Sancta, or the Lives of the Most Celebrated British, English, Scottish, and Irish Saints (2 parts, London, 1745) may also be mentioned. The Saints and Missionaries of the Anglo-Saxon Era, by D. C. O. Adams (2 ser., Oxford, 1897-1901), is a collection of brief and popular lives brought down to Queen Margaret of Scotland (d. 1093). A Menology of England and Wales, compiled by Richard Stanton, priest of the Oratory, London (London, 1887; Supplement, 1892), is probably the fullest list in existence of names of English and Welsh saints, with brief biographical notices. It is a scholarly work based upon sources (calendars, martyrologies, legends, histories, acts) many of which were previously inedited. A somewhat wide interpretation is given to the terms "English" and "saint." The Lives of the Irish Saints, with Special Festivals, and the Commemoration of Holy Persons, by John O'Hanlon, is an exhaustive work, in somewhat florid style, arranged according to the calendar, one volume being devoted to each month (Dublin, 1875 sqq.). Scottish calendars have been edited, with brief biographies of the saints, by A. P. Forbes in his Kalendars of Scottish Saints (Edinburgh, 1874). For Wales there is W. J. Rees's Lives of the Cambro-British Saints of the Fifth and Immediate Succeeding Centuries (Llandovery, 1853), Cardinal John Henry Newman's Lives of the English Saints (15 vols., London, 1844-45, and often) is more interesting now for the history of the movement which called it forth than as a contribution to hagiology. See also the bibliography of the article [63]Celtic Church in Britain and Ireland. Bibliography: For elaborate bibliographical lists of acts and lives of saints: A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica medii ævi, pp. xxxii.-xxxv., 1131-1646, Berlin, 1896 (the most complete list yet made in which the editions are accurately given); MGH, Index volume, Hanover, 1890; T. Ruinart, Acta primorum martyrum sincera et selecta, Paris, 1689 (latest ed., Ratisbon, 1859); Gross, Sources, pp. 84-89, 213-222, 245-249, 390-400, 442, 517-525; R. Knopf, Ausgewählte Märtyrakten, Tübingen, 1901; O. von Gebhardt, Acta Martyrum selecta, Leipsic, 1902. For history and criticism: A. Ebert, Allgemeine Geschichte der Literatur des Mittelalters im Abendlande, 3 vols., ib. 1874-87 (2d ed. of vol. i., 1889, perhaps the best survey of the subject); C. Jauningus, Apologia pro Actis Sanctorum, Antwerp, 1695; A. Scheler, Zur Geschichte des Werkes Acta Sanctorum, Leipsic, 1846; J. B. Pitra, Études sur la collection des Actes des Saintés publiés par les Bollandistes, Paris, 1850; J. Carnandet and J. Fèvre, Les Bollandistes et l'hagiographie ancienne of moderne, ib., 1866; Dehaisnes, Les Origines des Acta Sanctorum et les protecteurs des Bollandistes dans le nord de France, Douai, 1870; A. Tougard, De l'histoire profane dans les actes grecs des Bollandistes, Paris, 1874; C. de Smedt, Introductio generalis ad hist. eccl., Ghent, 1876 (contains a bibliography in pp. 111-197); E. le Blant, Acta Sanctorum et leur sources, Paris, 1880; idem, Les Actes des martyres, supplément aux Acta sincera de Dom Ruinart, ib. 1882; E. Egli, Altchristliche Martyrien und Martyrologien ältester Zeit, Zurich, 1887; A. Ehrhard, Die altchristliche Litteratur und ihre Erforschung, i. 539-592, Freiburg, 1900; Harnack, Litteratur, ii. 2, 463-482. Acton, John Emerich Edward Dalberg ACTON, JOHN EMERICH EDWARD DALBERG, first Baron Acton: Roman Catholic layman; b. in Naples, Italy, Jan. 10, 1834; d. at Tegernsee (31 m. s. of Munich) June 19, 1902. He was educated at Oscott College, Birmingham, from 1843 to 1848, then at Edinburgh, finally at the University of Munich. At Oscott the president, Nicholas Wiseman, afterward archbishop and cardinal, greatly influenced him, but at Munich the greater scholar, Dr. Döllinger, still more. These men fostered his love of truth and passion for accurate historical knowledge. Being wonderfully gifted and highly trained, he set forth upon a career of learned acquisition which made him the admiration of his associates. But in his own communion he soon became unpopular because he was a pronounced liberal. He conducted the "Home and Foreign Review" from 1862 to 1864 in the interest of anti-Ultramontanism, and so was condemned by the hierarchy and his journal virtually suppressed. He then pursued the same course in the "North British Review" from 1868 to 1872. His chief object of attack was the doctrine of papal infallibility, and he did all he could to prevent its adoption, but when it was promulgated by the Vatican Council of 1870 he did not follow his preceptor and friend Döllinger into the ranks of the Old Catholics, but remained in the Roman obedience. He showed that he had neither altered his views nor would he give up his independence when in 1874 he criticized with learning and candor the views of his patron and friend Gladstone upon Vaticanism. From 1859 to 1864 he represented Carlow in Parliament. In 1869 Mr. Gladstone raised him to the peerage. In 1886 he founded "The English Historical Review" with Professor (afterward Bishop) Mandell Creighton as editor. In 1895 he was made regius professor of modern history at Cambridge. He planned the Cambridge Modern History series, but did not live to see any of it published. Lord Acton possessed vast stores of accurate information, but he wrote very little except review articles and book-notices. So his list of separate publications is singularly short for so great a scholar. He edited Les Matinées royales, ou l'art de regner, the work of Frederick the Great (London, 1863); made a great sensation by his Sendschreiben an einem deutschen Bischof des vaticanischen Concils (Nördlingen, 1870); by his Zur Geschichte des vaticanischen Concils (Munich, 1871); and by his letters as correspondent of the London "Times" during the Council. His lectures, The War of 1870 (London, 1871), and especially those masterly ones on The History of Freedom in Antiquity and on The History of Freedom in Christianity (both Bridgnorth, 1877), fragments of that complete history of freedom which he dreamed he should one day write, and finally his inaugural lecture at Cambridge on The Study of History (London, 1895), show his range of knowledge and love of truth. Since his death his Letters to Mary [now Mrs. Drew], Daughter of the Right Honorable W. E. Gladstone (1904), edited with a memoir by Herbert Paul, his Cambridge Lectures (1906), and Lectures on Modern History (1906) have been published. Bibliography: Wm. A. Shaw's Bibliography of Lord Acton, London, Royal Historical Society, 1903; Lord Acton and His Circle, edited by F. A. Gasquet, London, 1906 (178 letters, mostly on literary subjects, by Lord Acton, with introduction by Gasquet). Acts of the Apostles ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. See [64]Luke II. For Apocryphal Books of Acts, see [65]Apocrypha, B, II. Adalbert (Adelbert, Aldebert) ADALBERT (ADELBERT, ALDEBERT): Frankish bishop; contemporary of [66]Boniface. He is known only from the letters of Boniface, who was his bitter opponent, and from the accounts of the proceedings instituted against him for heresy, which represent him as a dangerous misleader of the people, a skilful impostor, and arrogant blockhead, who thought himself equal to the apostles, declared himself canonized before birth, and claimed the power of working miracles and of remitting sins. It is said that he pretended to have a letter from Jesus, which the archangel Michael had found in Jerusalem, and other relics brought to him by angels. He disregarded confession, not thinking it necessary for the remission of sins, and planted crosses and founded chapels on the hills and by the streams, inducing the people to come thither for service instead of going to the churches of the apostles and martyrs. In his prayers unknown and suspicious names of angels were found. At the instigation of Boniface two Frankish synods (744 and 745) deposed Adalbert and condemned him to penance as a "servant and forerunner of Antichrist." A Roman synod confirmed his sentence and added excommunication. In 747 a general Frankish synod received a command from the pope to apprehend Adalbert and send him to Rome. The major domus, Pepin, burned his crosses and chapels; but the people seem to have sympathized with their bishop, who did not acknowledge the authority of his judges and who was not allowed to defend himself. His fate is unknown. Mainz tradition relates that he was defeated in a discussion with Boniface, that he was imprisoned at Fulda, and was killed by a swineherd while trying to escape. Opinions concerning him differ. Some look upon him as mentally unsound, as an impostor, or as a fanatic. Others see in him, as in his countryman [67]Clement among the East Franks, freedom from Rome, an opponent of the romanizing tendencies of his time, and a victim of the ecclesiastical policy of Boniface. A. Werner. Bibliography: Rettberg, i. (1846) 314-317, 368-370; H. Hahn, Jahrbücher des fränkischen Reichs, pp. 67-82, Berlin, 1863; Boniface, Epistolæ, in Jaffé, Monumenta Moguntina, 1866; J. H. A. Ebrard, Die iroschottische Missionskirche der sechsten, siebenten, und achten Jahrhunderten, pp. 341, 432-434, Gütersloh, 1873; A. Werner, Bonifatius, pp. 279-297, Leipsic, 1875; DCB, i. 77-78; Hauck, KD, i. (1904) 507-513. Adalbert of Hamburg-Bremen ADALBERT OF HAMBURG-BREMEN (formerly often called Albert): Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen 1045 (1043 ?)-1072; d. at Goslar Mar. 16, 1072. He came of a noble Saxon-Thuringian family, is first heard of as canon of Halberstadt, and followed the head of his chapter, Hermann, to Bremen when the latter was made archbishop, in 1032; on Hermann's death, three years later, he returned to Halberstadt and became provost there himself. He is probably the Adalbert who early in 1045 was acting as chancellor for Henry III. in Italian affairs. Henry nominated him to the archbishopric of Hamburg, probably in 1045, though some recent historians have placed the date at 1043. He soon showed that he had a lofty conception of the dignity of his office; and his ambition was supported by many advantages--a handsome and imposing presence, intellectual force, and the reputation of singular personal purity and moderation at a time when such qualities were rare. The reign of Henry III. was the period of his success and domination. King and archbishop, endowed with similar gifts, were attracted to each other, and found it necessary to make common cause against the Saxon dukes of the Billung house, who had already troubled the Church of Hamburg. Adalbert's frequent absences from his diocese gave the Billungs opportunity to attack it; but the archbishop, often accompanied by his vassals, could not avoid spending considerable time on the king's business. He accompanied Henry on his campaign of 1045, and went to Rome with him in the next year, taking part in the synods which deposed the three rival claimants for the papal see ([68]Benedict IX., [69]Sylvester III., and [70]Gregory VI.). Henry was minded to make him pope, but he firmly declined, and suggested the candidate on whom the choice finally fell, Suidger, bishop of Bamberg (see [71]Clement II.). Adalbert returned with Henry in May, 1047, and devoted himself to diocesan affairs. In the territories of the Abodrites (Obotrites) Gottschalk had gained supreme power, and worked with Adalbert for the introduction of Christianity (see [72]Gottschalk, 2). Norway, Sweden, and Denmark had all recognized the spiritual jurisdiction of Hamburg; but an effort was now made to break away from it. Svend Estridsen, king of Denmark after 1047, made an alliance with Henry through Adalbert's mediation, and brought forward a plan for the establishment of a separate ecclesiastical province in Denmark, with an archbishop and seven suffragans. Adalbert naturally could not look with complacency on the withdrawal of so large a part of his jurisdiction, after the sacrifices which the Church of Hamburg had made in the previous two hundred years for the evangelization of the northern kingdoms; and he feared that Sweden and Norway would follow. Yet he could not deny that there was some justification for Svend's desire. The emperor and Pope Leo IX., who took part in the Council of Mainz in 1049, seemed not indisposed to grant it. Adalbert offered to consent, on condition that he should have the rank of patriarch for the whole north. This, he thought, would solve the difficulty; one archbishop could not be subject to another, but might be to a patriarch. The project grew on him; and he planned the establishment of eleven new German sees to serve as a basis for his dignity. He did not contemplate any immediate rejection of Rome's suzerainty; but it was obvious that his plan might easily give him a position in the north not far short of that which the pope held in the south. Leo died in 1054, and Henry in 1056; and further thought of so far-reaching a scheme had to be postponed. Deprived of Henry's, support, Adalbert suffered much at the hands of the Billung dukes. Henry's son and successor (but five years old at his father's death) in 1062 fell into the power of [73]Anno, archbishop of Cologne; but the latter was soon forced to share his power with Adalbert, and then to see it passing more and more into his rival's hands. Of the two, Adalbert had much the better influence on the young king. He reached the height of his power when he had the king proclaimed of age at Worms (Mar. 29, 1065), and practically held the government in his own hands. But in Jan., 1066, the princes, with Anno at their head, forced Henry to banish Adalbert from court; and his remaining years were clouded by many troubles. New assaults of the Billungs forced him to flee from Hamburg. Paganism once more got the upper hand among the Wends, who laid waste the neighboring Christian lands; in Sweden the Church had to fight for its very existence. He was recalled to court in 1069, but did not succeed in restoring the prestige of his position. He still worked for the consolidation of the royal power in Germany, but had to leave the Saxon problem behind him unsolved. He bore long physical sufferings with remarkable firmness, laboring to the last for the king and for his diocese. He wished to be buried at Hamburg; but the destruction of that city by the Wends prevented this; and his body was laid in the cathedral of Bremen, the rebuilding of which he had himself completed. (Carl Bertheau.) Bibliography: Bruno, De bello Saxonico, in MGH, Script., v. (1844) 327-384 (2d ed., by W. Wattenbach, in Script. rer. Germ., sæc. xi, 1880); Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiæ pontificum, in MGH, Script., vii. (1846) 267-389 (printed separately, Hanover, 1846; 2d ed., 1876), Germ. transl. by J. C. M. Laurent (2d ed., by W. Wattenbach, Leipsic, 1888); Chronicon Gozecensis, in MGH, Script., x. (1852) 140-157; Colmar Grünhagen, Adalbert Erzbischof von Hamburg, Leipsic, 1854; Lambert, Annales, in MGH, Script., xvi. (1859), 645-650 (2d ed., by Holder-Egger, in Script. rer. Germ., 1894); E. Steindorff, Jahrbücher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich III., 2 vols., Leipsic, 1874-81, and in ADB, i. 56-61; G. Dehio, Geschichte des Erzbistums Hamburg-Bremen, i. 178-277, Berlin, 1876; R. Ballheimer, Zeittafeln zur hamburgischen Geschichte, pp. 18-24, Hamburg, 1895; Hauck, KD, iii. 649-664. Adalbert of Prague ADALBERT OF PRAGUE (Czech, Woitech, "Comfort of the Army"): An early German missionary, sometimes improperly called "the Apostle of the Slavs" or "of the Prussians"; b. about 950; murdered Apr. 23, 997. He was the son of a rich Czech nobleman named Slavenik, connected with the royal house of Saxony. He was educated at Magdeburg, but on the death of Adalbert (981), first archbishop of that place, whose name he had taken at confirmation, he returned home and was ordained priest by Thietmar, the first bishop of Prague, whom he succeeded two years later. He received investiture at Verona from Emperor Otho II., his kinsman, and was consecrated by Willigis, archbishop of Mainz, his metropolitan. His troubles soon began. The attempt to execute strictly what he conceived to be his episcopal duties brought him into conflict with his countrymen, who were hard to wean from their heathen customs. After five years of struggle, he left his diocese, intending to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem; but after a sojourn at Monte Cassino, he entered the monastery of St. Boniface at Rome, where he led a singularly devoted and ascetic life. In 992, however, he was required by the pope and his metropolitan to return to Prague. The conflict with stubbornly persistent heathen customs--polygamy, witchcraft, slavery--proved as hard as ever, and he once more left his diocese, returning, after a missionary tour in Hungary, to the peaceful seclusion of his Roman cloister. In 996 Willigis visited Rome and obtained fresh orders for Adelbert to return to his see, with permission to go and preach to the heathen only in case his flock should absolutely refuse to receive him. He went north in company with the young emperor, Otho III., and in the next spring, through Poland, approached Bohemia. Things had grown worse than ever there: his family had fallen under suspicion of treason through their connections with Germany and Poland; and the greater part of them had been put to death. His offer to return to Prague having been contumeliously rejected, he felt himself free to turn to the work which he desired among the heathen Prussians. Here he was killed by a pagan priest before he had succeeded in accomplishing much. His body was brought by the Duke of Poland and buried at Gnesen, whence it was taken to Prague in 1039. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: J. Canaparius, Vita Adalberti, in MGH, Script., iv. (1841) 574-620; Bruno, Vita Adalberti, ib. pp. 595-612; Miracula Adelberti, ib. 613-616; Passio Adalberti, ib., xv. part 2 (1888), 705-708; De St. Adalberto, ib. pp. 1177-84; MPL, cxxxvii. 859-888 (life and miracles); H. Zeissberg, Die polnische Geschichtsschreibung des Mittelalters, pp. 19 sqq., Leipsic, 1873; H. G. Voigt, Adalbert von Prag, Berlin, 1898; Hauck, KD, iii. (1906) 1041 sqq. Adalbold ADALBOLD, ad´?l-bOld: Bishop of Utrecht; d. Nov. 27, 1026. He was born probably in the Low Countries, and received his education partly from Notker of Liége. He became a canon of Laubach, and apparently was a teacher there. The emperor Henry II., who had a great regard for him, invited him to the court, and nominated him as Bishop of Utrecht (1010), and he must be regarded as the principal founder of the territorial possessions of the diocese, especially by the acquisition in 1024 and 1026 of the counties of Thrente and Teisterbant. He was obliged to defend his bishopric not only against frequent inroads by the Normans, but also against the aggressions of neighboring nobles. He was unsuccessful in the attempt to vindicate the possession of the district of Merwede (Mircvidu), between the mouths of the Maas and the Waal, against Dietrich III. of Holland. The imperial award required the restitution of this territory to the bishop and the destruction of a castle which Dietrich had built to control the navigation of the Maas; but the expedition under Godfrey of Brabant which undertook to enforce this decision was defeated; and in the subsequent agreement the disputed land remained in Dietrich's possession. Adalbold was active in promoting the building of churches and monasteries in his diocese. His principal achievement of this kind was the completion within a few years of the great cathedral of St. Martin at Utrecht. He restored the monastery of Thiel, and completed that of Hohorst, begun by his predecessor Ansfried. To the charge of the latter he appointed Poppo of Stablo, and thus introduced the Cluniac reform into the diocese. Adalbold is also to be mentioned as an author. A life of Henry II., carried down to 1012, has been ascribed to him; but the evidence in favor of attributing to him the extant fragment of such a life (MGH, Script., iv., 1841, 679-695; MPL, cxl. 87-108) is not decisive. He wrote a mathematical treatise upon squaring the circle (MPL, cxl. 1103-08), and dedicated it to Pope Sylvester II., who was himself a noted mathematician. There is also extant a philosophical exposition of a passage of Boethius (ed. W. Moll in Kerkhistorisch Archief, iii., Amsterdam, 1862, pp. 198-213). The discussion Quemadmodum indubitanter musicæ consonantiæ judicari possint (ed. M. Gerbert, in Scriptores ecclesiastici de musica sacra, i., St. Blasien, 1784, pp. 303-312; MPL, cxl. 1109) seems to have been ascribed to him on insufficient grounds. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Van der Aa, Adelbold, bisschop van Utrecht, Utrecht, 1862; Hauck, KD, iii. Adaldag ADALDAG, ad´?l-d??g: Seventh archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen (937-988); d. at Bremen Apr. 28 or 29, 988. He was of noble birth, a relation and pupil of Bishop Adalward of Verden and became canon of Hildesheim. Otho I. made him his chancellor and notary immediately after his accession, and on the death of Archbishop Unni of Hamburg-Bremen (936) nominated him to the vacant see. None of the early incumbents of the see ruled so long a time; and none did so much for the diocese, though his success was partly the fruit of his predecessors' labors and of peculiarly favorable circumstances. Under Adaldag the metropolitan see obtained its first suffragans, by the erection of the bishoprics of Ripen, Sleswick, and Aarhus; and that of Aldenburg was also placed under Hamburg, though the Slavic territories of the present Oldenburg had formerly belonged to the diocese of Verden. He resisted successfully a renewal of the efforts of Cologne to claim jurisdiction over Bremen (see [74]Adalgar). He gained many privileges for his see, in jurisdiction, possession of land, and market rights, by his close relations with the emperors, especially Otho I. He accompanied the latter on his journey to Rome, and remained with him from 961 to 965, and is mentioned as the emperor's chief counselor at the time of his coronation in Rome. Otho placed the deposed pope Benedict V. in his custody. After Adaldag's return to Hamburg, he still maintained these relations, and his privileges were confirmed by Otho II. and by the regency of Otho III. The later years of his life were troubled by inroads of the Danes and Slavonians on the north, and he may have witnessed the sack of Hamburg by the latter under Mistiwoi (if its date, as Usinger and Dehio think, was 983). (Carl Bertheau.) Bibliography: Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammenburgensis ecclesiæ pontificum, in MGH, Script., vii. (1846) 267-389 (issued separately, Hanover, 1846; 2d ed., 1876); W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, i., Brunswick, 1874; R. Köpcke and E. Dümmler, Kaiser Otto der Grosse, Leipsic, 1876; G. Dehio, Geschichte des Erzbistums Hamburg-Bremen, i. 65, 104-132, Berlin, 1877; Hauck, KD, vol. ii. Adalgar ADALGAR, ad´?l-g??r: Third archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen (888-909); d. May 9, 909. When Rimbert, who was appointed in 865 to succeed Ansgar, the first archbishop of Hamburg, stopped at the abbey of Corvey on his way to his field of labor, the abbot Adalgar gave him his brother, also named Adalgar, as a companion. The younger Adalgar was then a deacon. Toward the end of Rimbert's life he was consecrated bishop to assist the latter; and he succeeded him in the archbishopric (June 11, 888). During the latter half of his twenty years' rule, age and infirmity made it necessary for him also to have a coadjutor in the person of Hoger, another monk of Corvey; and later five neighboring bishops were charged to assist the archbishop in his metropolitan duties. Adalgar lived in troublous times. Although Arnulf's victory over the Normans (891) was a relief to his diocese, and although under Louis the Child (900-911) it suffered less from Hungarian onslaughts than the districts to the south and east of it, yet the general confusion restricted Adalgar's activity, and he was able to do very little in the northern kingdoms which were supposed to be part of his mission. There were also new contests over the relation of Bremen to the archiepiscopal see of Cologne. Bremen had originally been under the jurisdiction of Cologne; but this relation was dissolved on the reestablishment of the archbishopric of Hamburg in 848; and Pope Nicholas I. had confirmed the subordination of Bremen to Hamburg in 864 (see [75]Ansgar; [76]Hamburg, Archbishopric of ). In 890 Archbishop Hermann of Cologne wrote to Pope Stephen VI., demanding that the archbishop of Hamburg, as bishop of Bremen be subject to him. The course of the controversy is somewhat obscure; but it is known that Stephen cited both contestants to Rome, and when Adalgar alone appeared, Hermann being represented by delegates with unsatisfactory credentials, the pope referred the matter to Archbishop Fulk of Reims, to decide in a synod at Worms. In the mean time Stephen died; and his successor Formosus placed the investigation in the hands of a synod which met at Frankfort in 892 under Hatto of Mainz. On the basis of its report, Formosus decided that Bremen should be united to Hamburg so long as the latter had no suffragan sees, but should revert to Cologne when any were erected, the archbishop of Hamburg meanwhile taking part in the provincial synods of Cologne, without thereby admitting his subordination. Little is known of Adalgar's personality. From the way in which Rimbert's biographer and Adam of Bremen speak of him, he seems to have been a man of some force, but perhaps not strong enough for the difficult times in which his activity was cast. (Carl Bertheau.) Bibliography: Vita Rimberti, in MGH, Script., ii. (1829) 764-775, and in MPL, cxxvi. 991-1010; Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammenburgensis ecclesiæ pontificum, in MGH, Script., vii. (1846) 267-389 (issued separately, Hanover, 1846; 2d ed., 1876); Jaffé, Regesta, vol. i.; G. Dehio, Geschichte des Erzbistums Hamburg-Bremen, i. 97-100, Berlin, 1877; Hauck, KD, vol. ii. Adalhard and Wala ADALHARD AND WALA, ad´?l-h??rd, w??´l?: Abbots of Corbie (10 m. e. of Amiens) from about 775 to 834. They were brothers, cousins of Charlemagne, pupils and friends of Alcuin and Paul the Deacon, and men of much authority and influence in both church and state. The elder, Adalhard (b. about 751; d. Jan. 2, 826), was interested in the German language and the education of the clergy, and is especially famous for the establishment of diocesan colleges and the foundation of the abbey of New Corbie (Corvey) on the Weser (see [77]Corvey). He gave new laws to his monastery of Corbie (MPL, cv. 535-550), and defended against Pope Leo III. the resolutions de exitu Spiritus Sancti passed in the autumn of 809 by the Synod of Aachen (see [78]Filioque Controversy). When Charlemagne's son Pepin, king of Italy, died (810), Adalhard was appointed counselor of his young son Bernard in the government of Italy. The younger brother, Wala (d. at Bobbio in Italy Sept. 12, 836), also enjoyed the confidence of Charlemagne, and became chief of the counts of Saxony. In 812 he was sent to join Adalhard and Bernard in Italy and work for the choice of the last-named as king of the Lombards. After the death of Charlemagne and the accession of the incapable Louis (814), whom the brothers had always opposed, they returned to Corbie, and fell into disgrace for having favored Bernard. They were deprived of their estates and Adalhard was banished. After seven years, however, a reconciliation took place between them and Louis. Wala, as successor of Adalhard at Corbie, continued his brother's work and gave especial care to the mission in the north. As head of the opposition to the repeal of the law of succession of 817 and a bold defender of the rights of the Church, he was imprisoned by Louis in 830, and regained his liberty only when, in 833, Louis's eldest son, Lothair, the future emperor, came north with an army, accompanied by Pope Gregory IV. Wala's counsel was gratefully received by both Lothair and Gregory; and the former rewarded him with the abbey of Bobbio in northern Italy. Just before his death Wala became reconciled with Louis, and, at the head of an embassy sent to that monarch by Lothair, made peace between father and son. A. Werner. Bibliography: Paschasius Radbertus, Vita Adelhardi, complete in ASM, iv. 1, pp. 308-344; Vita Walæ, ib. pp. 455-522; also in MPL, cxx. 1507-1650; extracts in MGH, Script., ii. (1829) 524-569; F. Funk, Ludwig der Fromme, Frankfort, 1832; Himly, Wala et Louis-le-Débonnaire, Paris, 1849; Jaffé, Regesta, vol. i.; A. Enck, De St. Adalhardo abbate Corbeiæ antiquæ et novæ, Münster, 1873; B. E. Simson, Jahrbücher des fränkischen Reichs unter Ludwig dem Frommen, i., Munich, 1874 ; Hauck, KD, vol. ii.; W. Wattenbach, DGQ, i. (1893) 250, ii. (1894) 170; D. C. Munro and G. C. Sellery, Mediæval Civilization, pp. 319-320, New York, 1904. Adam ADAM. I. Doctrinal. The Biblical Statement Interpreted Literally (§ 1). The Position of Adam to the Race (§ 2). The Orthodox Views (§ 3). The Evolutionary Views (§ 4). II. Historical. The Use of "Adam" as a Proper Name (§ 1). Foreign Influence in P (§ 2). The Aim and Plan of P (§ 3). The Narrative of J (§ 4). Parallels in Other Literatures (§ 5). The Literary Material Mythical in Character (§ 6). New Testament References (§ 7). I. Doctrinal: 1. The Biblical Statement Interpreted Literally. According to the literal statement of Genesis (v. 2), the name "Adam" (Heb. adham, "man") was given by God himself to the first human being. The important place occupied by man, according to the Biblical idea, is the close, the appointed climax, of creation. Inanimate nature looked forward to man. To his creation God gave special care. It was sufficient for the Creator to order the other creatures into being; but man was molded by the divine fingers out of the dust of the earth. Thus far he belonged to the created world; but into him God breathed the breath of life, and thus put him in an immeasurably higher place; for the possession of this breath made him the "image" of God. What this "image" was is learned from the Bible (Gen. i. 26, ii. 7); it was likeness to God in the government of the creatures and in the possession of the same spirit (see [79]Image of God). God, the absolute personality, reflects himself in man and, therefore, the latter becomes the lord of creation. Adam was the representative of the race--humanity in person. Opposite to the species and genera of beasts stood the single man. He was not a male, still less a man-woman; he was man. Out of him, as the progenitor of the race, Eve was taken. But man's true position can not be comprehended until he is considered in relation to Christ, the second man, as is most clearly expressed in Rom. v. 12 sqq.; I Cor. xv. 21-22, 45-49. By Adam's fall, sin and death entered into the world, and condemnation has come upon all through him; but from the second Adam has come just the opposite--righteousness, justification, and life. Those who by sin are united to the first Adam reap all the consequences of such a union; similarly do those who by faith are united to the second Adam. Each is a representative head. 2. The Position of Adam to the Race. Materialism sees in man a mere product of nature. It is difficult to see how it makes place for self-consciousness. The unity of the race is also given up; and so logically Darwinism leads to belief in a plurality of race origins. Theology, on the other hand, holds fast to the personality of man, but has, from the beginning of the science, wavered in regard to the position occupied by Adam toward the race. The oldest Greek Fathers are silent upon this point. Irenæus is the first to touch it; and he maintains that the first sin was the sin of the race, since Adam was its head (III. xxiii. 3; V. xii. 3; cf. R. Seeberg, Dogmengeschichte, i., Leipsic, 1895, p. 82). Origen, on the other hand, holds that man sinned because he had abused his liberty when in a preexistent state. In Adam seminally were the bodies of all his descendants (Contra Celsum, iv.; cf. C. F. A. Kahnis, Dogmatik, ii., Leipsic, 1864, pp. 107 sqq.). Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of Nyssa, and Chrysostom derive sin from the fall. Tertullian, Cyprian, Hilary, Ambrose, and Augustine represent the Biblical standpoint. Pelagius saw in Adam only a bad example, which his descendants followed. Semi-Pelagianism similarly regarded the first sin merely as opening the flood-gates to iniquity; but upon this point Augustinianism since it was formulated has dominated the Church--in Adam the race sinned. (Carl von Buchrucker.) 3. The Orthodox Views. The prominent orthodox views are: (1) The Augustinian, known as realism, which is that human nature in its entirety was in Adam when he sinned, that his sin was the act of human nature, and that in this sin human nature fell; that is, lost its freedom to the good, becoming wholly sinful and producing sinners. "We sinned in that man when we were that man." This is the view of Anselm, Peter Lombard, Thomas Aquinas, and Luther. (2) The federal theory of the Dutch divines Cocceius and Witsius is that Adam became the representative of mankind and that the probation of the human race ended once for all in his trial and fall in the garden of Eden. Accordingly the guilt of Adam's sin was imputed to his posterity. This is the theory of Turretin and the Princeton theologians. (3) The theory of mediate imputation (Placæus) is that the sin of Adam is imputed to his descendants not directly, but on account of their depravity derived from him and their consent to his sin. (See [80]Imputation; [81]Sin.) 4. The Evolutionary Views. According to the evolutionary view of man's origin, which is not necessarily materialistic, Adam may be designated as the first individual or individuals in the upward process of development in whom self-consciousness appeared or who attained such stability of life that henceforth humanity was able to survive the shock of death. By some, the first man is conceived of as a special instance of creative wisdom and power; by others, as the natural result of the evolutionary process. Whether the human race sprang from one individual or from several is, for lack of evidence, left an open question. In this position the unity of the race is in no wise compromised, since this is grounded not in derivation from a single pair but in identity of constitution and ideal ethical and spiritual aim. This view of the first man brings into prominence the dignity of human nature and its kinship with the divine, yet at the same time profoundly modifies the traditional doctrine of original sin. In the disproportion between the inherited instincts, appetites, and desires of the animal nature and the weak and struggling impulses of the moral consciousness there arises an inevitable conflict in which the higher is temporarily worsted and the sense of sin emerges. By virtue of heredity and the organic and social unity of the race, all the descendants of the earliest man are involved with him in the common struggle, the defeat, and the victory of the moral and spiritual life. This conflict is a sign that man is not simply a fallen being, but is in process of ascent. The first man, although of the earth, is a silent prophecy of the second man, the Lord from heaven. C. A. Beckwith. II. Historical: 1. The Use of "Adam" as a Proper Name. The sources of knowledge of Adam are exclusively Biblical and, indeed, wholly of the Old Testament, since the New Testament adds nothing concerning his personality and his doings to what is recorded of him in the Book of Genesis. The main inquiry, therefore, must be as to the place occupied by Adam in the Old Testament. Here several striking facts confront us: (1) There is no allusion to Adam direct or indirect after the early genealogies. In Deut. xxxii. 8 and Job xxviii. 28 the Hebrew adham (adam) means "mankind." In Hos. vi. 7 the reading should be "Admah" (a place-name). The latest references (apart from the excerpt in I Chron. i. 1) are Gen. iv. 25 (Sethite line of J) and Gen. v. 1, 3 (Sethite line of P). (2) Outside of the genealogies there is no clear instance of the use of the word as a proper name. The definite article, omitted in the Masoretic text, should be restored in Gen. iii. 17, 21 (J) in harmony with the usage of the whole context, which reads "the man" instead of "Adam." Eve (Gen. iii. 20; iv. 1) is the first proper name of our Bible. (3) Whatever may have been the origin of the proper name "Adam," its use here seems to be derived from and based upon the original generic sense. Even in the genealogies the two significations are interchanges. Thus while Gen. v. 1 substitutes "Adam" for "the man" of i. 27, chap. v. 2 continues: "Male and female created he them . . . and called their name Adam." It is a fair inference that the genealogies are in part at least responsible for the individual and personal usage of the name. When it is considered that all Semitic history began with genealogies, of which the standing designation in the early summaries is "generations" (Heb. toledhoth), the general motive of such a transference of ideas is obvious. The process was easy and natural because in the ancient type of society a community is thought of as a unit, is a proper name without the article, and is designated by a single not a plural form. The first community having been "man" ("the adam"), its head and representative was naturally spoken of as "Man" ("Adam") when there was need of referring to him. On the etymological side a partial illustration is afforded by the French on (Lat. homo) and the German man, which express individualization anonymously. 2. Foreign Influence in P. The secondary character of the notion of an individual Adam is also made probable by the fact that the genealogical system of P is artificial and of foreign origin or at least of foreign suggestion. The whole scheme of the ten generations of Gen. v. is modeled upon and in part borrowed from the Babylonian tradition of the first ten kings of Babylon. Of these lists of ten there are five names in either list which show striking correspondences with five in the other, ending with the tenth, which in either case is the name of the hero of the flood story. These Babylonian kings also were demigods, having lives of immense duration, two of them, moreover (the seventh and the tenth), having, like Enoch and Noah, special communications with divinity. 3. The Aim and Plan of P. In brief, as regards P, the matter stands as follows:--His first theme was the process and plan of creation according to an ascending scale of being. At the head of creation were put the first human beings, "man" or mankind (Gen. i. 26). The second leading thought in P's "generations of the heavens and the earth" was the continuance of the race or the peopling of the earth. Expression was given to it by the statement that "the man" was created "male and female" (i. 27). The third stage in the narrative is reached when the descent of Abraham from the first man is established, in order to provide a necessary and appropriate pedigree for the house of Israel. At the head of this line was placed the individual "Man" or "Adam." 4. The Narrative of J. Turning now to the story of Paradise and the Fall, which, as has been seen, speaks of the first man only as "the man" and not as "Adam," the main motive of Gen. ii.-iv. is to account for certain characteristics and habits of mankind, above all to set forth the origin, nature, and consequences of sin as disobedience to and alienation from Yahweh. Man is presented first as a single individual; next as being mated with a woman, with and for whom he has a divinely constituted affinity; then as the head of the race upon which he brings the curse due to his own disobedience. At first sight this might seem to imply a preconception of the individuality and personality of the first man, who may as well as not have borne the name "Adam," which J himself gives him in the fragmentary genealogy of Gen. iv. 25-26. But the inference is not justified. The pictures drawn by J and the conceptions they embody are not spontaneous effusions. They are the result of careful selection and of long and profound reflection, and when the problems which J sets out to solve and the incidents which convey and embody the solution be considered, it must be concluded that the answers to the questions could have been arrived at only through the study of man, not in individuals but as a social being. In other words, this "prophetic" interpreter worked his way backward through history or tradition along certain well-known lines of general human experience, and at the heart of the story appears not a single but a composite figure, not an individual but a type, while the story itself is not history or biography but in part mythical and in part allegorical. Thus the unhistorical character of Adam is even more demonstrable from the narrative of J than from that of P. 5. Parallels in Other Literatures. Some of the primitive mythical material in Genesis has analogies in other literatures. Not to mention the more remote Avesta, attention must again be called to some of the Babylonian parallels. It is now indisputable that Eden is a Babylonian name; that the whole scenery of the region is Babylonian; that the tree of life, the cherubim, and the serpent, the enemy of the gods and men, are all Babylonian. There is also the Babylonian story of how the first man came to forfeit immortality. Adapa, the human son of the good god Ea, had offended Anu, the god of heaven (see [82]Babylonia, VII, 3, § 3), and was summoned to heaven to answer for his offense. Before his journey thither he was warned by his divine father to refuse the "food of death" and "water of death" which Anu would offer to him. At the trial, Anu, who had been moved by the intercession of two lesser gods, offered him instead "food of life" and "water of life." These he refused, and thus missed the immortality intended for him; for Anu when placated had wished to place him among the gods. Some such story as this by a process of reduction along monotheistic lines may have contributed its part to the framework of the narrative of the rejection of Adam. It is indeed possible that Adam and Adapa are ultimately the same name. 6. The Literary Material Mythical in Character. An important element in the whole case is the general character of the literary material of which the story of Adam forms a portion. Apart from the conceptions proper to the religion of Israel, which give them their distinctive moral value, the events and incidents related belong generically to the mythical stories of the beginnings of the earth and man, which have been related among many ancient and modern peoples, and specifically to the cycle of myths and legends which reached their fullest literary development in Babylonia, and which undoubtedly were originally the outgrowth of a polytheistic theory of the origin of the universe. Much weight must also be attached to the fact that the story of Adam is practically isolated in the Old Testament, above all to the consideration that prophecy and psalmody, which build so much upon actual history, ignore it altogether. 7. New Testament References. The New Testament references show that Jesus and Paul used the earliest stories of Genesis for didactic purposes. The remark is often made in explanation that their age was not a critical one and that the sacred authors did not in their own minds question the current belief in the accuracy of the oldest documents. This is probably true, at any rate of Paul (cf. especially I Cor. xi. 8-9; I Tim. ii. 13-14). His view of the relation between the first and second Adam (I Cor. xv. 22, 45; Rom. v. 12 sqq.) is the development of an idea of rabbinical theology, and has a curious primitive analogy in the relation between Merodach, the divine son of the good god Ea, and Adapa, the human son of Ea (cf. Luke iii. 38). Jesus himself does not make any direct reference to Adam in his recorded sayings. J. F. McCurdy. Bibliography: I. §§ 1, 2: Jos. Butler, Sermons on Human Nature, in vol. ii. of his Works, Oxford, 1844; S. Baird, The First Adam and the Second, Philadelphia, 1860; J. Müller, Christliche Lehre von der Sünde, Breslau, 1867, Eng. transl., Doctrine of Sin, Edinburgh, 1868; Chas. Hodge, Systematic Theology, ii., ch. v., vii., viii., New York, 1872; R. W. Landis, Original Sin and Imputation, Richmond, 1884; W. G. T. Shedd, Dogmatic Theology, ii. 1-257, iii. 249-377, New York, 1888 (vol. iii. gives catena of citations from early Christian times to the middle of the eighteenth century); H. B. Smith, System of Christian Theology, pp. 273-301, ib. 1890; W. N. Clarke, Outline of Christian Theology, pp. 182-198, 227-259, ib. 1898; R. V. Foster, Systematic Theology, pp. 348-355, 363-381, Nashville, 1898; A. H. Strong, Systematic Theology, pp. 234-260, 261-272, New York, 1902. I. § 3: H. B. Smith, System of Christian Theology, New York, 1886; G. P. Fisher, Discussions in History and Theology, pp. 355-409, ib. 1880; cf. Calvin, Institutes, book ii., ch. 1., §§ 6-8. I. § 4: H. Drummond, The Ascent of Man, New York, 1894; J. Le Conte, Evolution and its Relation to Religious Thought, ib. 1894; J. Fiske, The Destiny of Man Viewed in the Light of his Origin, Boston, 1895; idem, Through Nature to God, ib. 1899; J. M. Tyler, The Whence and the Whither of Man, ib. 1896; C. R. Darwin, The Descent of Man, pp. 174-180, New York, 1896; J. Deniker, The Races of Man, London, 1900. II. §§ 1-7: M. Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, pp. 511, 544 sqq., Boston, 1898; idem, in DB, supplement vol., pp. 573-574; H. Gunkel, Schöpfung und Chaos, pp. 420 sqq., Göttingen, 1895; idem, Genesis, pp. 5 sqq., 33, 98 sqq., ib. 1902; Schrader, KAT, pp. 397, 520 sqq. Adam, Books of ADAM, BOOKS OF. See [83]Pseudepigrapha, Old Testament, II., 39. Adam of Bremen ADAM OF BREMEN: Author of the Gesta Hammenburgensis ecclesiæ pontificum, a history of the archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen extending down to the death of Adalbert (1072). The work itself tells of its author only that his name began with "A," that he came to Bremen in 1068 and ultimately became a canon there, and that he wrote the book between the death of Adalbert and that of King Svend Estridsen of Denmark (1072-76). But there is no doubt that this is the work referred to by Helmold and assigned to a Magister Adam; in which case the author must be the Adam magister scholarum who wrote and was one of the signatories to an extant document of Jan. 11, 1069, and also the same whose death on Oct. 12, year not given, is recorded in a Bremen register. It may be conjectured from scanty indications that Adam was born in upper Saxony and educated at Magdeburg. His education was in any case a thorough one for his time. His book is one of the best historical works of the Middle Ages. Not only is it the principal source for the early history of the archbishopric and its northern missions, but it gives many valuable data both for Germany and other countries. The author was unusually well provided with documents and with the qualities necessary for their use. His general credibility and love of truth have never been seriously challenged; and his impartiality is shown by the way in which he records the weaknesses of Adalbert, with whom he was in close relations and whom he admired. The best edition of Adam's book is by J. M. Lappenberg, in MGH, Script., vii. (1846) 267-389 (issued separately, Hanover, 1846; 2d ed., with full introduction and notes, 1876); the work is also in MPL, cxlvi. 451-620. There is a German translation by J. C. M. Laurent (2d ed., revised by W. Wattenbach, Leipsic, 1888). (Carl Bertheau.) Bibliography: J. H. a Seelen, De Adamo Bremensi, in his Miscellanea, ii. 415-493, Lübeck, 1736; L. Giesebrecht, Historische und literarische Abhandlung der Königsberger deutschen Gesellschaft, ed. F. W. Schubert, iii. 141, Königsberg, 1834; W. Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, i. 752, Brunswick, 1874; G. Dehio, Geschichte des Erzbistums Hamburg-Bremen, i. 176-177, Berlin, 1877; W. Wattenbach, DGQ, iii. (1894) 78-82; Hauck, KD, iii. Adam, Melchior ADAM, MELCHIOR, mel´kî-??r: Protestant biographer; b. at Grottkau (35 m. s.e. of Breslau), Silesia; d. at Heidelberg, where he was rector of the city school, Mar. 23, 1622. He is remembered for his series of 136 biographies, mostly of German Protestant scholars, especially theologians (5 vols., Heidelberg and Frankfort, 1615-20; 2d ed., under the title Dignorum laude virorum immortalitas, 1653; 3d ed., 1706). Adam of Saint Victor ADAM OF SAINT VICTOR: One of the most important of the liturgical poets of the Middle Ages; his nationality is described by the Latin word Brito ("Breton" ?), and he was canon of St. Victor of Paris in the second half of the twelfth century. From his sequence upon Thomas Becket of Canterbury it is inferred that he survived the latter's canonization (1174). His poems do not include all of his writings, but are the most important. From the ninth century it was customary to set words (called prosa and sequentia) to the melodies (jubili, sequentia) with which the Hallelujah of the gradual in the mass closed (see [84]Sequence). In the twelfth century a more artificial style of composition, according to strict rules, took the place of the freer rhythms of the earlier time, and for this period of sequence composition Adam has an importance comparable to that of [85]Notker for the former period. He shows a real talent in his mastery of form; and his best pieces contain true poetry, although as concerns power to excite the emotions and the higher flights of the poetic fancy, his compositions are not equal to a Salve caput, Stabat mater, or Lauda Sion. S. M. Deutsch. Bibliography: L. Gautier, OEuvres poétiques d'Adam de St. Victor, 2 vols., Paris, 1858 (complete and critical ed., with life in vol. i.; 3d ed., 1894), reprinted in MPL, cxcvi, 1421-1534 (Eng. transl. by D. S. Wrangham, The Liturgical Poetry of Adam of St. Victor, 3 vols., London, 1881); K. Bartsch, Die lateinischen Sequenzen des Mittelalters, pp. 170 sqq., Rostock, 1868; Histoire littéraire de la France, xv. 39-45; E. Misset, Poésie rythmique du moyen âge; essai . . . sur les oeuvres poétiques d'Adam de St. Victor, Paris, 1882. Adam the Scotchman ADAM THE SCOTCHMAN (Adamus Scotus, called also Adamus Anglicus): A mystic-ascetic author of the twelfth century. According to his biographer, the Premonstrant Godefroi Ghiselbert of the seventeenth century, he was of north-English origin, belonged to the Premonstrant order, was abbot at Whithorn (Casa Candida) in Galloway toward 1180, and about the same time also lived temporarily at Prémontré, the French parent monastery of the order. He seems to have died soon after. It is highly improbable that he was living in the thirteenth century, as Ghiselbert thinks, who identifies him with the English bishop of the Order of St. Norbert mentioned by Cæsarius of Heisterbach (Miraculorum, iii. 22). The first incomplete edition of Adam's works was published by Ægidius Gourmont (Paris, 1518). It contains his three principal writings of mystic-monastic content: (1) Liber de ordine, habitu, et professione Præmonstratensium, fourteen sermons; (2) De tripartito tabernaculo; (3) De triplici genere contemplationis. The edition of Petrus Bellerus (Antwerp, 1659) contains also Ghiselbert's life and a collection of forty-seven sermons on the festivals of the church year, which seem to have belonged to a larger collection of 100 sermons comprising the whole church year. In 1721 Bernhard Pez (Thesaurus anecdotorum, i. 2, 335 sqq.) published Soliloquia de instructione discipuli, sive de instructione animæ, which has been ascribed to Adam of St. Victor, but belongs probably to Adam the Scotchman. All of these works with Ghiselbert's life are in MPL, cxcviii. 9-872. O. Zöckler. Bibliography: Godefroi Ghiselbert, Vita Adami, in MPL, cxcviii.; C. Oudin, De scriptoribus ecclesiæ, ii. 1544 sqq., Frankfort, 1722 ; A. Miræus, Chronicon ordinis Præmonstratensis, in M. Kuen, Collectio scriptorum variorum religiosorum ordinum, vi. 36, 38, Ulm, 1768; G. Mackenzie, The Lives and Characters of the most Eminent Writers of the Scots Nation, i. 141-145, Edinburgh, 1708. Adamites (Adamiani) ADAMITES (ADAMIANI): 1. Epiphanius (Hær., lii.) gives an account of a sect of "Adamiani," that held their religious assemblies in subterranean chambers, both men and women appearing in a state of nature to imitate Adam and Eve, and calling their meetings paradise. Since Epiphanius knew of them only from hearsay, and is himself doubtful whether to make of them a special class of heretics, their existence must be regarded as questionable. There are further unverifiable notices in John of Damascus (Opera, i. 88; following the Anakephalaiosis, attributed to Epiphanius), in Augustine (Hær., lxxxi.), and in Hæreticarum fabularum epitome, i. 6). G. Krüger. 2. Charges of community of women, ritual child-murder, and nocturnal orgies were brought by the heathen world against the early Christians, and by the latter against various sects of their own number (Montanists, Manicheans, Priscillianists, etc.). Similar accusations were made against almost all medieval sects, notably the Cathari, the Waldensians, the Italian Fraticelli, the heretical flagellants of Thuringia in 1454, and the Brethren of the Free Spirit. All of these allegations are to be regarded with much suspicion. The doctrine of a sinless state, taught by the Brethren of the Free Spirit, and, in other cases, extravagant acts of overwrought mystics may have furnished a basis, which, without doubt, was often elaborated from the accounts of "Adamites" mentioned above. 3. The name "Adamites" has become the permanent designation of a sect of Bohemian Taborites, who, in Mar., 1421, established themselves on an island in the Luschnitz, near Neuhaus, and are said to have indulged in predatory forays upon the neighborhood, and to have committed wild excesses in nocturnal dances. They were suppressed by Ziska and Ulrich von Neuhaus in Oct., 1421. It is probable that they were merely a faction of the Taborites who carried to an extreme their belief in the necessity of a complete separation from the Church and resorted to violence to spread their principles. The charges against their moral character are in the highest degree suspicious. Even in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries certain religious sectaries were persecuted in Bohemia as "Adamites." 4. An Anabaptist sect in the Netherlands about 1580 received the name "Adamites" because they required candidates for admission to appear unclothed before the congregation and thus show that physical desire had no power over them. Members of an Amsterdam congregation who in 1535 ran through the streets naked and crying wo to the godless were probably insane. The followers of [86]Adam Pastor were called "Adamites" from their leader. Silly stories of orgies by so-called devil-worshipers (the "black mass") are sometimes heard at the present time. (Herman Haupt.) Bibliography: (1) I. de Beausobre, Dissertation sur les Adamites de Bohème, in J. Lenfant, Historie de la guerre des Hussites, ii. 355-358, Amsterdam. 1731; C. W. F. Walch, Entwurf einer vollständigen Historie der Ketzereien, i. 327-335, Leipsic, 1762. (2) J. Nider, Formicarius, III. vi., Cologne, 1470; C. Schmidt, Historie et doctrine de la secte des Cathares, ii. 150 sqq., Paris, 1849; W. Preger, Geschichte der deutschen Mystik, i. 207 sqq., 461 sqq., Leipsic, 1874; A. Jundt, Histoire du panthéisme populaire, pp. 48-49, 56, 111 sqq., Paris, 1875; H. Haupt, in ZKG. vi. (1885) 552 sqq.; H. C. Lea, History of the Inquisition, i. 100 sqq., New York, 1888; K. Müller, Kirchengeschichte, i. 610, Freiburg, 1892. (3) J. Dobrowsky, Geschichte der böhmischen Pikarden und Adamiten, in Abhandlungen der böhmischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften von 1788, pp. 300-343; K. Höfler, Geschichtschreiber der hussitischen Bewegung in Böhmen, i. 452, 499 sqq. (Fontes rerum Austriacarum, I. ii., Vienna, 1856), ii. 336, 345 (ib. I. vi., 1865); F. Palacky, Geschichte von Böhmen, iii. 2, 227 sqq., 238 sqq., Prague, 1851, iv. 1 (1857), 462; A. Gindely, Geschichte der böhmischen Brüder, i. 18, 36, 56-57, 97-98, Prague, 1856; Beausobre, ut sup.; J. Goll, Quellen und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der böhmischen Brüder, i. 119, Prague, 1878; ii. (1882) 10 sqq.; H. Haupt, Waldenserthum und Inquisition im südostlichen Deutschland, pp. 23, 109, note 1, Freiburg, 1890. (4) Prateolus, De vitis hæreticoram, 1, Cologne, 1569; C. Schlüsselburg, Catalogus hæreticoram, xii. 29, Frankfort, 1599; F. Nippold in ZHT, xxxiii. (1863) 102; C. A. Cornelius, in Abhandlungen of the Royal Bavarian Academy, Historische classe, xi. 2, 67 sqq., Munich, 1872; Natalis Alexander, Hist. eccl., xvii. 183, Paris, 1699; J. Bois, Le Satanisme et la magie, ib. 1895. Adamnan ADAMNAN ("Little Adam"): Ninth abbot of Iona (679-704); b. probably at Drumhome in the southwest part of County Donegal, Ireland (50 m. s.w. of Londonderry), c. 625; d. on the island of Iona Sept. 23, 704. He was a relative of Columba and the greatest of the abbots of Iona after its illustrious founder, famed alike for learning (he had some knowledge of even Greek and Hebrew), piety, and practical wisdom. He was a friend (and perhaps the teacher) of Aldfrid, king of Northumbria (685-705), visited his court in 686 and again in 688, and was converted there to the Roman tonsure and Easter computation by Ceolfrid of Jarrow. He was unable, however, to win over his monks of Iona, but had more success in Ireland, where he spent considerable time, attended several synods, and warmly advocated the Roman usages. Many churches and wells are dedicated to him in Ireland and Scotland, and his name appears corrupted into various forms, as "Ownan," "Eunan" (the patron of Raphoe), "Dewnan," "Thewnan," and the like. The extant writings of Adamnan are: (1) Arculfi relatio de locis sanctis, written down from information furnished personally by Arculf, a Gallic bishop who was driven to England by stress of weather when returning from a visit to Palestine, Syria, Alexandria, and Constantinople. Adamnan added notes from other sources known to him, and presented the book to King Aldfrid. Bede made it the basis of his De locis sanctis and gives extracts from it in the Hist. eccl., v. 16, 17. (2) Vita S. Columbæ, written between 692 and 697, not so much a life as a presentation without order of the saint's prophecies, miracles, and visions, but important for the information it gives of the customs, the land, the Irish and Scotch tongues, and the history of the time. (3) The "Vision of Adamnan," in old Irish, describing Adamnan's journey through heaven and hell, is probably later than his time, but may present his real spiritual experiences and his teaching. Other works are ascribed to him without good reason. H. Hahn. Bibliography: For works consult MPL, lxxxviii.; Arculfi relatio, in Itinera Hierosolymitana bellis sacris anteriora, i., pp. xxx-xxxiii., 139-210, 238-240, 392-418 (Publications of the Société de l'Orient latin, Série géographique, i., Geneva, 1879), and in Itinera Hierosolymitana sæculi iiii.-viii., ed. P. Geyer, pp. 219-297 (CSEL, xxxix., 1898); Eng. transl. by J. R. Macpherson (Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, 1889); Vita S. Columbæ, ed. W. Reeves, Dublin, 1857 (new ed., with Eng. transl. and an unfortunate rearrangement of the notes, by W. F. Skene, Edinburgh, 1874); also by J. T. Fowler, Oxford, 1894 (Eng. transl., 1895); the text of the Vision, with Eng. transl., has been published by Whitley Stokes, Fis Adamnain, Simla, 1870; E. Windisch, Irische Texte, pp. 165-196, Leipsic, 1880 (contains the text). For Adamnan's life: Lanigan, Eccl. Hist., passim; Reeves, in his ed. of the Vita Columbæ, pp. xl.-lxviii., Dublin, 1857; A. P. Forbes, Kalendars of Scottish Saints, Edinburgh, 1872; DCB, i. 41-43; W. F. Skene, Celtic Scotland, ii. 170-175, Edinburgh, 1877; DNB, i. 92-93; J. Healy, Insula Sanctorum, pp. 334-347, Dublin, 1890; P. Geyer, Adamnan, Augsburg, 1895; T. Olden, Church of Ireland, pp. 59, 77, 104, 119, London, 1895; Cain Adamnan, an old Irish Treatise on the Law of Adamnain, ed. Kuno Meyer, in Anecdota Oxoniensa, Oxford, 1905. Adams George Moulton ADAMS, GEORGE MOULTON: Congregationalist; b. at Castine, Me., July 7, 1824; d. at Auburndale, Mass., Jan. 11, 1906. He was educated at Bowdoin College (B.A., 1844), Bangor Theological Seminary (1844-46), the universities of Leipsic, Halle, and Berlin (1847-49), and Andover Theological Seminary (1849-50). He held successive pastorates at Conway, Mass. (1851-63); Portsmouth, N. H. (1863-71); and Holliston, Mass. (1873-89), and also acted as supply at Mentham, Mass. (1890-91), and Waban, Mass. (1905), although after 1889 he was engaged chiefly in literary work. In his theological position he was a Trinitarian Congregationalist. He was historian of the New England Historic-Genealogical Society and a member of its Council, a member of the Board of Overseers of Bowdoin College, the treasurer of the Trustees of Donations for Education in Liberia and of the Mount Coffee Association for the promotion of education in Liberia, and in 1903 was made Knight Commander of the Liberian Humane Order of African Redemption. In addition to a number of briefer studies and occasional addresses, he revised the Biblical Museum of James Comper Gray (8 vols., New York and London, 1871-81) under the title of The Biblical Encyclopedia (5 vols., Cleveland, O., 1903). Adams James Alonzo ADAMS, JAMES ALONZO: Congregationalist; b. at Ashland, O., May 21, 1842. He was educated at Knox College (A.B., 1867) and Union Theological Seminary (1870), after having served in the Civil war as a member of Company D, 69th Illinois Volunteers. He was pastor of the Congregational Church at Marshfield, Mo., in 1870-71; of the Plymouth Congregational Church, St. Louis, in 1880-86; of the Millard Avenue Congregational Church, Chicago, in 1887-88; and of the Warren Avenue Congregational Church in the same city in 1889-95. In 1891 he was a delegate from the Congregational churches of Illinois to the International Congregational Council in London, and has also been their representative at a number of national councils. He was professor in Straight University, New Orleans, 1873-77, and president in 1875-77, and then became editor of the Dallas Daily Commercial, Dallas, Tex. From 1887 to 1903 he was editorial writer on the Chicago Advance, becoming its editor-in-chief in the latter year. His principal works are Colonel Hungerford's Daughter (Chicago, 1896) and Life of Queen Victoria (1901). Adams John Coleman ADAMS, JOHN COLEMAN: Universalist; b. at Malden, Mass., Oct. 25, 1849. He was educated at the high schools of Providence, R. I., and Lowell, Mass., and at Tufts College (A.B., 1870) and Divinity School (B.D., 1872). He has held pastorates at the Newton Universalist Church, Newton, Mass. (1872-80); First Universalist Church, Lynn, Mass. (1880-84); St. Paul's Universalist Church, Chicago, Ill. (1884-90); All Souls' Universalist Church, Brooklyn, N. Y. (1890-1901); and Church of the Redeemer, Hartford, Conn., from 1901 to the present time. He has been a trustee of Tufts College since 1880 and of the Universalist General Convention since 1895. In his theological position he is a pronounced Universalist. His works include The Fatherhood of God (Boston, 1888); Christian Types of Heroism (1891); The Leisure of God (1895); Nature Studies in the Berkshires (New York, 1899); and Life of William Hamilton Gibson (1901). Adams, Sarah Flower ADAMS, SARAH (FULLER) FLOWER: English Unitarian; b. at Harlow (25 m. n.e. of London), Essex, Feb. 22, 1805; d. in London Aug. 14, 1848. Her father was Benjamin Flower (1755-1829), printer, editor, and political writer, and, Sept. 24, 1834, she married William Bridges Adams (1797-1872), an inventor and engineer of distinction, also a writer on political subjects. She was a highly gifted woman, much esteemed by a circle of friends which included, among others, W. J. Linton, Harriet Martineau, Leigh Hunt, and Robert Browning. Inherited deafness and a weak constitution prevented her from following the stage as a profession, which she had chosen in the belief that "the drama is an epitome of the mind and manners of mankind, and wise men in all ages have agreed to make it, what in truth it ought to be, a supplement to the pulpit." She wrote poems on social and political subjects, chiefly for the Anti-Corn-Law League; contributed poems and articles to the Monthly Repository during the years 1832-53, when it was conducted by her pastor [87]W. J. Fox, and published a long poem, The Royal Progress, in the Illuminated Magazine in 1845. In book form she published Vivia Perpetua, a Dramatic Poem (London, 1841; reprinted with her hymns and a memoir by Mrs. E. F. Bridell-Fox, 1893), and The Flock at the Fountain (1845), a catechism. In addition, she furnished fourteen original hymns and two translations to Hymns and Anthems (1840), a collection for Fox's chapel at Finsbury, including her best-known production, Nearer, my God, to thee. Her sister, Eliza Flower (1803-46), possessed much musical talent and furnished the original music for this hymn as well as for others in the book. Bibliography: DNB, i. 101; S. W. Duffield, English Hymns, pp 382-388, New York, 1886; Julian, Hymnology, p. 16; N. Smith, Hymns Historically Famous, pp. 174-182, Chicago, 1901. Adams, Thomas ADAMS, THOMAS: English preacher and commentator of the seventeenth century, called by Southey "the prose Shakespeare of Puritan theologians . . . scarcely inferior to Fuller in wit or to Taylor in fancy." Little is known of his life beyond what may be gathered from the title-pages and dedications of his books. He was preaching in Bedfordshire in 1612; in 1614 became vicar of Wingrave, Bucks; from 1618 to 1623 preached in London; he was chaplain to Sir Henry Montagu, lord chief justice of England, in 1653 was a "necessitous and decrepit" old man, and died probably before the Restoration. He published many occasional sermons (collected into a folio volume, London, 1630), besides a commentary on the Second Epistle of Peter (1633; ed. J. Sherman, 1839). His works, ed. Thomas Smith, with life by Joseph Angus, were published in Nichol's Series of Standard Divines (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1862-63). Adams, William ADAMS, WILLIAM: American Presbyterian; b. at Colchester, Conn., Jan. 25, 1807; d. at Orange Mountain, N. J., Aug. 31, 1880. He was graduated at Yale (1827) and at Andover Theological Seminary (1830); was pastor at Brighton, Mass. (1831-34); of the Broome Street (Central) Presbyterian Church, New York (1834-53); and of the Madison Square Presbyterian Church, formed from the Broome Street Church (1853-73). From 1873 till his death he was president and professor of sacred rhetoric and pastoral theology in Union Theological Seminary. He was one of the leading clergymen in New York in his time, and his influence was not bounded by his own denomination or land. Besides many individual sermons he published an edition of Isaac Taylor's Spirit of Hebrew Poetry, with a biographical introduction (New York, 1862); The Three Gardens (1856); In the World and not of the World (1867); Conversations of Jesus Christ with Representative Men (1868); Thanksgiving (1869). Adams, William Forbes ADAMS, WILLIAM FORBES: Protestant Episcopal bishop of Easton (Md.); b. at Enniskillen (70 m. s.w. of Belfast), County Fermanagh, Ireland, Jan. 2, 1833. He came to America at the age of eight, was educated at the University of the South, and was admitted to the Mississippi bar in 1854, but subsequently studied theology, and was ordained deacon in 1859, and priest in the following year. He was rector of St. Paul's Church, Woodville, Mass., from 1860 to 1866, when he was called to the rectorate of St. Peter's, New Orléans, but went in the following year to St. Paul's in the same city, where he remained until 1875. In that year he was consecrated first missionary bishop of New Mexico and Arizona, but was compelled by illness to resign. He then accepted the rectorate of Holy Trinity Church, Vicksburg, Miss., where he remained from 1876 to 1887, when he was consecrated bishop of Easton. Adamson, Patrick ADAMSON, PATRICK: Scotch prelate; b. in Perth Mar. 15, 1537 (according to another account, 1543); d. at St. Andrews Feb. 19, 1592. He was educated at the University of St. Andrews; preached for two or three years in Scotland; was in France as private tutor at the time of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew; returned to Scotland and to the ministry; and was made archbishop of St. Andrews in 1576. Thenceforth his life was a continual struggle with the Presbyterian party, and he died in poverty. His enemies have assailed his character, but all agree that he was a scholar and an able preacher and writer. He composed a Latin catechism for the young King James, translated the Book of Job into Latin hexameters, and wrote a tragedy on the subject of Herod. His collected works were published by his son-in-law, Thomas Wilson (London, 1619), who also added a life to an edition of his treatise De pastoris munere, published separately the same year. Adamson, William ADAMSON, WILLIAM: Evangelical Union; b. at New Galloway (20 m. w. of Dumfries), Kirkcudbrightshire, Aug. 29, 1830. He was educated at Glasgow and St. Andrews Universities and at Evangelical Union Theological Hall. He was pastor in Perth eleven years and in Edinburgh twenty-seven years, and also conducted a public theological class in the latter city for eighteen years. He was for several years a member of the Edinburgh School Board, and took an active interest in politics and movements for reform. He is now pastor of the Carver Memorial Church, Windermere, Westmorelandshire. His writings include The Righteousness of God (London, 1870); The Nature of the Atonement (1880); Religious Anecdotes of Scotland (1885); Knowledge and Faith (1886); Robert Milligan: A Story (Glasgow, 1891); Missionary Anecdotes (1896); Argument of Adaptation (London, 1897); Life of the Rev. James Morison (1898); Life of the Rev. Fergus Ferguson (1900); and Life of the Rev. Joseph Parker (1902). He is also the editor of The Christian News. Addicks, George B. ADDICKS, GEORGE B.: Methodist Episcopalian; b. at Hampton, Ill., Sept. 9, 1854. He was educated at the Central Wesleyan College, Warrenton, Mo., and at the Garrett Bible Institute, Evanston, Ill. (1876-77). He taught in the preparatory department of the Central Wesleyan College in 1875-76, and in 1877-78 preached at Geneseo, Ill., being ordained to the Methodist Episcopal ministry in the latter year. From 1878 to 1885 he taught the German language and literature in Iowa Wesleyan University and German College, Mount Pleasant, Ia., and from 1885 to 1890 held a pastorate at Pekin, Ill. In 1890 he returned to the Central Wesleyan College as professor of practical theology and philosophy, and since 1895 has been president and professor of philosophy of the same institution. In 1900 he was a delegate to the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church and was a member of the University Senate of the same denomination from 1896 to 1904. Addis, William Edward ADDIS, WILLIAM EDWARD: Church of England; b. at Edinburgh May 9, 1844. He was educated at Glasgow University and Balliol College, Oxford (B.A., 1866). Originally a member of the Church of England, he became a convert to the Roman Catholic Church in 1866, and was ordained to the priesthood in 1872 at the London Oratory, being parish priest of Sydenham from 1878 to 1888. In the latter year he renounced this faith and became minister of the Australian Church, Melbourne, Australia, an undenominational institution, where he remained until 1892, when he took a similar position at the High Pavement Chapel, Nottingham (1893-98). In 1899 he was appointed Old Testament lecturer at Manchester College, Oxford, and shortly afterward returned to the Church of England. His college accordingly attempted to expel him and to declare itself officially non-conformist, but the movement was proved illegal, and he still retains his position, although the hostile attitude of the trustees of Manchester College prevents him from resuming his work as a priest of the Church of England. He has written A Catholic Dictionary (London, 1883; in collaboration with Thomas Arnold); Christianity and the Roman Empire (1893); Documents of the Hexateuch (2 vols., 1893-98); and Hebrew Religion to the Establishment of Judaism Under Ezra (1906). Addison, Daniel Dulany ADDISON, DANIEL DULANY: Protestant Episcopalian; b. at Wheeling, W. Va., Mar. 11, 1863. He received his education at Union College and the Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass. (1886). He was curate of Christ Church, Springfield, Mass., in 1886-89 and rector of St. Peter's Church, Beverly, Mass., in 1889-95, while since 1895 he has been rector of All Saints' Church, Brookline, Mass. He is examining chaplain to the bishop of Massachusetts, director of the Church Temperance Society, member of the executive committee of the archdeaconry of Boston, president of the New England Home for Deaf-Mutes and the Brookline Education Society, vice-president of the Trustees of Donations for Education in Liberia, and a trustee of the College of Monrovia, Liberia, and of the Brookline public library. In 1904 he was made Knight Commander of the Liberian Humane Order of African Redemption. He has written: Lucy Larcom, Life, Letters and Diary (Boston, 1894); Phillips Brooks (1894); Life and Times of Edward Bass, First Bishop of Massachusetts (1897); All Saints' Church, Brookline (Cambridge, 1896); The Clergy in American Life and Letters (New York, 1900); and The Episcopalians (1904). Adelbert ADELBERT. See [88]Adalbert. Adelmann ADELMANN: Bishop of Brescia in the eleventh century. The time and place of his birth are unknown, and the date of his death, as well as that of his consecration as bishop, is uncertain. Gams (Series episcoporum, Regensburg, 1872, p. 779) assigns the latter two events to 1053 and 1048, respectively. Adelmann himself states that he was not a German; he has been commonly taken for a Frenchman, but may have been a Lombard. The first certain fact of his life is that, together with Berengar of Tours, he studied under Fulbert at Chartres. Afterward he studied, and later taught (probably from 1042), in the school of Liége, then at Speyer. The works which have made him known are: (1) a collection of Rhythmi alphabetici de viris illustribus sui temporis, devoted to the praise of Fulbert and his school, and (2) a letter to Berengar on his eucharistic teaching; the letter was written before Berengar's first condemnation, but after his departure from the traditional doctrine was notorious (both works in MPL, cxliii. 1289-98). The letter is not so much an independent investigation as a solemn warning to his friend against the danger of falling into heresy. Adelmann treats the subject from the purely traditional standpoint, and considers it settled by the words of institution. The change (he uses the words transferre, transmutare) of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ takes place invisibly in order to afford an opportunity for the exercise of faith; such occurrences, accordingly, can not be investigated by reason, but must be believed. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Histoire littéraire de la France, vii. 542; Hauck, KD, vol. iii., p. 963. Adelophagi ADELOPHAGI, ad´´el-?f´?-j?i or -gî ("Not Eating in Public"): Certain people, mentioned in Prædestinatus (i. 71), as thinking it unseemly for a Christian to eat while another looked on. They are also referred to by Augustine (Hær., lxxi.), who copies Philastrius (Hær., lxxvi.) and is uncertain whether their scruple included members of their own sect or applied only to others. Further statements in Prædestinatus are to be accepted with extreme caution. G. Krüger. Adeney, Walter Frederic ADENEY, WALTER FREDERIC: Congregationalist; b. at Ealing (9 m. w. of London), Middlesex, Eng., Mar. 14, 1849. He received his education at New College and University College, London. He was minister of the Congregational Church at Acton, London, from 1872 to 1889, and from 1887 to the same year was lecturer in Biblical and systematic theology at New College, London. In 1889 he was appointed professor of New Testament exegesis and church history in the same institution, holding this position until 1903, as well as a lectureship on church history in Hackney College, London, after 1898. In 1903 he was chosen principal of Lancastershire College, in the University of Manchester, and two years later was appointed lecturer on the history of doctrine in the same university. As a theologian, he accepts the results of Biblical criticism which he feels to be warranted, and welcomes scientific and philosophic investigation and criticism of religion, although he seeks to adhere firmly to basal Christian truths and to harmonize them with what he holds to be other ascertained verities. His works include, in addition to numerous articles in magazines and Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible, as well as in nine volumes of the Pulpit Commentary (1881-90), The Hebrew Utopia (London, 1877); From Christ to Constantine (1886); From Constantine to Charles the Great (1888); two volumes in the Expositor's Bible (1893-94; the first on Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther; and the second on Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon); The Theology of the New Testament (1894); How to Read the Bible (1896); Women of the New Testament (1899); the section on the New Testament in the Biblical Introduction written by him in collaboration with W. H. Bennett (1899); and A Century's Progress (1901). He is likewise editor of The Century Bible, to which he himself has contributed the volumes on Luke (London, 1901) and the Epistles to the Thessalonians (1902). Adeodatus ADEODATUS, ??d´´î-o-d??´tus: Bishop of Rome from Apr. 11, 672, to his death, June 16, 676. His pontificate was unimportant. The Liber pontificalis (ed. Duchesne, i. 346) ascribes to him the restoration of the basilica of St. Peter at Campo di Merlo, near La Magliana (7 1/2 m. from Rome), and the enlargement of the monastery of St. Erasmus in Rome, where he had been a monk. The only documents of his extant (MPL, lxxxvii. 1139-46) are concessions of privileges to the churches of St. Peter at Canterbury and St. Martin at Tours. For his participation in the Monothelite controversy, see [89]Monothelites. He is sometimes known as Adeodatus II., because the form "Adeodatus" is used also for the name of a former pope Deusdedit (615-618). Adiaphora, and the Adiaphoristic Controversies ADIAPHORA, ad´´i-af´o-r?, AND THE ADIAPHORISTIC CONTROVERSIES. Classical Greek Usage (§ 1). Christ's Usage (§ 2). Paul's Usage (§ 3). Patristic and Medieval Usage (§ 4). Luther's Usage (§ 5). First Adiaphoristic Controversy (§ 6). Flacius's Restriction of Adiaphora (§ 7). Second Controversy (§ 8). Recent Discussion (§ 9). 1. Classical Greek Usage In the history of Christian ethics the term "adiaphora" (pl. of Gk., adiaphoron, "indifferent") signifies actions which God neither bids nor forbids, the performance or omission of which is accordingly left as a matter of indifference. The term was employed by the Cynics, and borrowed by the Stoics. To the latter that only was good or evil which was always so and which man could control. Such matters as health, riches, etc., and their opposites were classed as adiaphora, being regarded for this purpose, not as actions, but as things or conditions. Adiaphora were divided into absolute and relative; the former being such as had to do with meaningless distinctions, while the latter involved preference, as in the case of sickness versus health. The Stoics did not, however, from the adiaphoristic nature of external things deduce that of the actions connected therewith. 2. Christ's Usage. Jesus's ideal of righteousness as devotion of the entire person to God revealed as perfect moral character, signified, on the one side, freedom from every obligation to a statutory law, particularly precepts concerning worship. He regarded the observance of external rites as a matter of indifference so far as real personal purity was concerned, and, with his disciples observed the Jewish rites as a means to the fulfilment of his mission to Israel when they did not interfere with doing good (Mark iii. 4). Yet this ideal involved such a sharpening of moral obligation that in the presence of its unqualified earnestness and comprehensive scope there was no room for the question, so important to legalistic Judaism, how much one might do or leave undone without transgressing the Law. The slightest act, like the individual word, had the highest ethical significance to the extent that it was an expression of the "abundance of the heart" (Matt. xii. 25-37). 3. Paul's Usage. Paul emphasizes, on the one hand, the comprehensive character of Christian ethics and, on the other, the freedom which is the Christian's; and he concludes that the observance or disregard of dicta pertaining to external things is a matter of indifference in its bearing on the kingdom of God (Rom. xiv. 17; I Cor. vi. 12, viii. 8; Gal. v. 6; Col. ii. 20). He recognizes, with the exception of the Lord's Supper, no forms for Christian worship, but merely counsels that "all things be done decently and in order" (I Cor. xiv. 40). From the fact that the Christian belongs to God, the Lord of the world, Paul deduces the authority (Gk. exousia) of Christians over all things (I Cor. iii. 21-23), especially the right freely to make use of the free gifts of God (I Cor. x. 23, 26; Rom. xiv. 14, 20). Ability to return thanks for them is made the subjective criterion of their purity (Rom. xiv. 6; I Cor. x. 30). Those things also are permissible which are left free by implication in the ordinances of the Church, or are expressly allowed. But action in the domain of the permissible is restricted for the individual by ethical principles according to which he must be bound (Rom. xiv. 2 sqq.; I Cor. vi. 12, viii. 9, x. 23). Concrete action in all such cases he regards as not at the pleasure of the individual, but as bidden or forbidden for the sake of God. 4. Patristic and Medieval Usage. In place of this view of freedom, combining obligation with unconstraint, there soon arose one of a more legal cast. At the time of Tertullian there was in connection with concrete questions a conflict between the two principles (1) that what is not expressly permitted by Scripture is forbidden; and (2) that what is not expressly forbidden is permitted. The restriction of the idea of duty by that of the permissible, and the recognition of an adiaphoristic sphere were further confirmed by the distinction between præcepta and consilia and by the doctrine of supererogatory merits. The question of adiaphora was argued by the schoolmen. Thomas Aquinas and his followers held that there were certain actions which, so far as being intrinsically capable of subserving a good or an ill purpose, were matters of indifference; but they recognized no act proceeding from conscious consideration which was not either disposed toward a fitting end or not so disposed, and hence good or bad. Duns Scotus and his adherents recognized actions indifferent in individuo, i.e., those not to be deemed wrong though without reference, actual or virtual, to God. The early Church at first appropriated the Cynic and Stoic opposition to culture, holding that it interfered with the contemplation of God and divine things. But with large heathen accessions, this attitude was no longer maintained. The primitive Christian ideal was, to be sure, preserved; but its complete fulfilment was required of only those bound thereto by the nature of their calling. 5. Luther's Usage. Luther based his position on that of Paul. He appears, indeed, to determine the idea of adiaphora (the expression does not occur in his works) according to a legalizing criterion when he distinguishes between things or works which are clearly bidden or forbidden by God in the New Testament and those which are left free--to neglect which is no wrong; to observe, no piety. But he further says in the same connection that under the rule of faith the conscience is free, and Christians are superior to all things, particularly externals and precepts in connection therewith. In accordance with this view he considers that an external form of divine worship is nowhere enjoined (the Lord's Supper is a beneficium, not an officium); and he distinguishes between the necessary and the free in churchly forms by their effects. Prayer, the Lord's Supper, and preaching are necessary to edification; but the time, place, and mode have no part in edification, and are free. His standpoint, then, was not simply that there were certain things left free, but that the assertion of freedom (or adiaphorism) applied to the whole realm of externals. In individual cases, however, a limitation was imposed by ethical aims and rules. Christians were to take part in the external worship of God to fulfil the duty of public confession and that they might "communicate" (Heb. xiii. 16). Ceremonial forms served to perpetuate certain effective modes of observance; but they were not to be idolatrous, superstitious, or pompous. Luther, in opposition to Carlstadt, urged that in the forms of worship for the sake of avoiding offense to some, whatever was not positively objectionable should be suffered to remain. He was ready to concede the episcopal form of church government and other matters, if urged not as necessary to salvation, but as conducive to order and peace. He wished, also, to maintain Christian freedom against stubborn adherents of the Law. 6. First Adiaphoristic Controversy. The churchly adiaphora formed the subject of the first adiaphoristic controversy. The Wittenberg theologians believed that the concessions on the basis of which the Leipsic interim was concluded could be justified by the principles enunciated and exemplified at the outset of the Reformation. They held that, despite formal modifications, they had surrendered only traditional points of church government and worship, and even then only such as were unopposed by Scripture, had been so recognized in the primitive Church, and had seemed to themselves excellent arrangements, conducive to order and discipline. Further, they maintained that every idolatrous usage had been discountenanced, and that from what was retained idolatrous significance had been excluded. It may be mentioned, by way of example, that the Latin liturgy of the mass was admitted, with lights, canonicals, etc., though with communion and some German hymns; also confirmation, Corpus Christi day, extreme unction, fasting, and the jurisdiction of bishops. 7. Flacius's Restriction of Adiaphora. Before the interim had been authentically published there arose a controversy in which the attack was led by Flacius. In his De veris et falsis adiaphoris (1549), he raised the question by not only maintaining that preaching, baptism, the Lord's Supper, and absolution had been commanded by God, but even by concluding from I Cor. xiv. 40 that the ceremonial usages connected therewith had been divinely ordained in genere. He also sought to limit the Lutheran indifference to detail by insisting on what he deemed seriousness and dignity in the liturgy, as opposed to the canonicals, music, and spectacles of the Catholic Church. In addition he protested that what might be called the individual character of the Church was to be conserved, and that existing means of edification should be altered only in favor of better ones. Under the circumstances obtaining at the time, he said, even a matter in itself unessential could not be treated as permissible, and the concessions of the interim were an act of treachery: they were occasioned by the endeavors of the emperor to restore the Catholic Church, the promulgators being moved by fear, or at best by lack of faith; and in effect they were an admission of past errors, strengthening their opponents, while the rank and file, looking at externals only, would see in the restoration of discarded usages a reversion to the old conditions. The dispute continued after the peace of Augsburg; and the Formula Concordiæ not only drew the distinction (art. X.) that in time of persecution, when confession was necessary, there should be no concession to the enemies of the Gospel, even in adiaphora, since truth and Christian freedom were at stake, but to some extent appropriated Flacius's restriction of the idea of adiaphora. 8. Second Controversy. In the so-called second adiaphoristic controversy the Lutheran and Calvinistic systems came into conflict. Luther had maintained the right of temperate enjoyment of secular amusements. Calvin, on the other hand, stood for fundamentally different principles, in accordance with which he enforced his Genevan code of discipline. Voetius carried these principles still further. On the Lutheran side was Meisner, who is in this respect the classic opponent of the Calvinists. He puts secular amusements under the head of adiaphora as being actions neither right nor wrong per se but per aliud,--the person and the purpose especially to be considered,--and in concrete instances becoming always either right or wrong. The controversy began at the close of the seventeenth century, when secular amusements were attacked per se by several writers, such as Reiser and Winkler, the Pietistic theologians of Hamburg, Vockerodt, Lange, and Zierold. Lange, for example, contended that in the light of revealed law there are no indifferent acts. Those actions alone are right which are under the influence of the Holy Spirit for the honor of God in the faith and name of Christ; and he holds that the divine will exercises a direct and immediate control. Hence actions not bidden of God are necessarily actions which profit not and are therefore collectively wrong. He enumerates nineteen separate reasons why Christians should take no part in secular amusements and would exclude from the Lord's Supper those who do. He regards the defense of adiaphora as a heresy which abrogates all evangelical doctrine. Spener's theory was equally severe, but his practise was wisely modified. He counseled that those who participated in secular amusements should be dissuaded therefrom not harshly, but by indirect exhortations to follow Christ; and he would not refuse absolution to such, since many of them did not really appreciate the wrong of those things. Rothe, Warnsdorf, and Schelwig were the principal champions of the previously existing Lutheran teaching; but their defense was far less resolute than the attack. 9. Recent Discussion. The question of adiaphora has subsequently been a subject of discussion. The first to introduce a new point of view of any considerable value was Schleiermacher (Kritik der bisherigen Sittenlehre, 2d ed.; Werke zur Philosophie, ii.), who contested the ethical right of adiaphora on the basis of the necessity in the moral life of unity and stability. Only in the realm of civil law, and in the moral judgment of others whose actions must frequently, for lack of evidence, remain unexplained, does he admit of adiaphora. Most later evangelical authorities, for example Martensen, Pfleiderer, Wuttke, and, most closely, Rothe, are in substantial agreement with this position, though introducing some variations and modifications. (J. Gottschick.) Among British and American Christians no adiaphoristic controversy has found place; but the types of religious and ethical thought that underlay the opposing forces in the controversies above considered have been in conflict at all times and everywhere. English Puritanism and early Scottish Presbyterianism, as well as New England Puritanism, either rejected adiaphora wholly or reduced them to the smallest proportions. The English Tractarians in seeking to overcome the difficulties involved in uniting with the Church of Rome gave earnest attention to adiaphora. A sign of the times is the watchword of the Evangelical Alliance, "In essentials, unity; in nonessentials, liberty; in all things, charity." The Lambeth articles proposing the Nicene and Apostles' Creeds, the two sacraments, the open Bible, and the historic episcopate as the basis of union with non-conforming Churches treated as adiaphora the Athanasian Creed, uniformity of worship, and use of the Prayer Book. The Protestant Episcopal Church in America has settled the chief point in dispute between Churchman and Puritan by eliminating the State from necessary union with the Church. In the union of religious bodies both in Great Britain and America, for which there is a growing tendency, minor differences are ignored in favor of essential principles. In all Churches some dogmas once deemed essential to the integrity of truth are laid aside never to regain their former position (cf. the Westminster Confession with the "Brief Statement of Faith" published by authority of the Presbyterian Church in the United States). With reference to conduct prescribed by ecclesiastical bodies or recognized as belonging to personal responsibility--the "personal instance"--two diametrically opposite tendencies are evident. In the first case, the spirit of democracy and of enlightened public sentiment is rapidly withdrawing many actions once regarded as legitimately under church jurisdiction, as amusements and the like, from such supervision. In the second case, if life is to be ruled by moral maxims, many actions must be left morally indeterminate, yet when every deed is seen to be not atomistic but an integral part of self-realization, then all actions take their organic place in the serious or happy fulfilment of life's aim. In both instances alike, however, the moral adiaphora disappear. C. A. B. Bibliography: For the ethical and theological treatment of Adiaphora consult in general: the treatises on ethics, casuistry, dogmatics, and the history of philosophy. Special treatment will be found in C. C. E. Schmid, Adiaphora, wissenschaftlich und historisch untersucht, Leipsic, 1809; J. Schiller, Probleme der christlichen Ethik, Berlin, 1888; J.H. Blunt, Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, . . . s.v., Philadelphia, 1874; KL, i. 223-232. On the Adiaphoristic Controversy consult: Schmid, Controversia de adiaphoris, Jena, 1807; J. L. v. Mosheim, Institutes of Eccl. Hist., ed. W. Stubbs, ii. 574-576, London, 1863; KL, i. 232-235, 769; iv. 1528; v. 769; xii. 1568, 1719. Adler, Cyrus ADLER, CYRUS: American Jewish scholar; b. at Van Buren, Ark., Sept. 13, 1863. He was educated at the Philadelphia High School, the University of Pennsylvania (B.A., 1883) and Johns Hopkins (Ph.D., 1887). He was fellow in Semitics at Johns Hopkins in 1885-87, and was appointed instructor in the same subject in 1887, and associate professor five years later. In 1887 he was also made assistant curator of Oriental antiquities in the United States Museum, Washington, and custodian of the section of historic religious ceremonials in 1889. In 1905 he was appointed assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. He was virtually the founder of the American Jewish Historical Society in 1892 and has been its president since 1898, and was likewise one of the reorganizers (1902) of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (New York City), of which he is a life trustee, besides serving as president in 1902-05. He has edited the American Jewish Year Book since 1899, has been a member of the editorial staff of the Jewish Encyclopedia, in which he had charge of the departments of post Biblical antiquities and the history of the Jews in America, and has published, in collaboration with Allan Ramsay, Told in the Coffee House (New York, 1898). Adler, Felix ADLER, FELIX: Founder of the Society for Ethical Culture; b. at Alzey (20 m. s.w. of Mainz) Aug. 13, 1851. He came to America in 1857, when his father was called to the rabbinate of Temple Emanu-El, New York City, and was educated at Columbia College (A.B., 1870), the Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judenthums at Berlin and the university of the same city, and the University of Heidelberg (Ph.D., 1873). From 1874 to 1876 he was professor of Hebrew and Oriental literature at Cornell, but in the latter year went to New York and established the Society for Ethical Culture, a non-religious association for the ethical improvement of its members, of which he has since been the head. He has been active in various philanthropic enterprises and in popular education, being a member of the State Tenement Committee in 1884 and of the Committee of Fifteen in 1901, and in 1902 was appointed professor of political and social ethics at Columbia University. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Ethics and has written Creed and Deed (New York, 1877); The Moral Instruction of Children (1898); Life and Destiny (1903); Marriage and Divorce (1905); Religion of Duty (1905), and Essentials of Spirituality (1905). Adler, Hermann Nathan ADLER, HERMANN NATHAN: Chief rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the British Empire; b. at Hanover, Germany, May 30, 1839. He was educated at the University College School and University College, London (B.A., 1859), and also at the universities of Prague and Leipsic (Ph.D., Leipsic, 1861). He received the rabbinical diploma at Prague in 1862, and in the following year was appointed principal of Jews' College, London. In 1864 he became minister of the Bayswater Synagogue, London, but continued to be tutor in theology in Jews' College until 1879, when he was appointed delegate chief rabbi to relieve his father, Nathan Marcus Adler, whom age had rendered unable to perform all the duties of chief rabbi. On the death of his father, Adler was chosen his successor as chief rabbi in 1891, and at the same time was elected president of Jews' College, where he had already been chairman of the council since 1887. He is also president of Aria College and the London beth din, vice-president of the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children and the Mansion House Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Poor, governor of University College, and a member of the committee of the King Edward Hospital Fund and the Metropolitan Hospital Sunday Fund. He has likewise been president of the Jewish Historical Society, vice-president of the Jewish Religious Educational Board and the Anglo-Jewish Association, and representative of the Russo-Jewish Committee at Berlin (1889) and Paris (1890). In addition to numerous briefer contributions, he has written Solomon ibn Gabirol and his Influence upon Scholastic Philosophy (London, 1865) and Sermons on the Biblical Passages adduced by Christian Theologians in Support of the Dogmas of their Faith (1869). Adler, Nathan Marcus ADLER, NATHAN MARCUS: English chief rabbi; b. at Hanover, Germany, Jan. 15, 1803; d. at Brighton (50½ m. s. of London), Sussex, England, Jan. 21, 1890. He was educated at the universities of Göttingen, Erlangen (Ph.D., 1826), Würzburg, and Heidelberg, and in 1830 was appointed chief rabbi of Oldenburg. Before a year had passed he was made chief rabbi of the kingdom of Hanover, and in 1845 he was installed in the far more important post of chief rabbi of the British Empire. In 1845 he received the assistance of a deputy delegate chief rabbi, but retained his own position until his death. Active both in philanthropic and educational measures, he was the founder of Jews' College, London, in 1855, besides being the real originator of the Hospital Sabbath among his coreligionists. He was the author of many works in English, German, and Hebrew, including Die Liebe zum Vaterlande (Hanover, 1838); The Jewish Faith (London, 1867); and Nethinah la-Ger (commentary on the Targum of Onkelos, Wilna, 1875). Ado ADO, ??´´dO´: Archbishop of Vienne 860-875; b. near Sens about 800; d. at Vienne Dec. 16, 875. He was considered one of the principal upholders of the papal hierarchy, and wrote a Martyrologium (best ed. by D. Giorgi, 2 vols., Rome, 1745), which surpasses all its predecessors in richness of material, and a Chronicon de sex ætatibus mundi (Paris, 1512; Rome, 1745 et al.; extracts in MGH, Script., ii., 1829, pp. 315-323) from the creation of the world to 874. His works are in MPL, cxxiii. 1-452. Adonai ADONAI. See [90]Yahweh. Adonai Shomo ADONAI SHOMO. See [91]Communism, II., 1. Adoption ADOPTION. Old Testament Conception (§ 1). The Conception of Jesus (§ 2). Paul's Conception (§ 3). The Gospel and Epistles of John (§ 4). The Apologists (§ 5). Augustine (§ 6). Scholasticism (§ 7). Luther (§ 8). Later German Theology (§ 9). Two Views Held at Present (§ 10). Adoption is a term of theology denoting the new relation to God which Jesus experienced and into which he brings his followers. In tracing the history of this conception, attention is to be paid to the different senses in which the analogy is used in religion, the idea of homogeneousness with God, of the relation to him, and the divine basis of both. 1. Old Testament Conception. In the Old Testament, the people, the king, and individual pious men and women are called children of God. The people become children of God by their introduction into the promised land, the king by his election, individual persons by their physical creation. It is only with regard to the heavenly spirits that the state of being a child of God (Gotteskindschaft) expresses homogeneousness of being. The relation is one in which God helps, pardons, educates, even through suffering, and in which men have to obey God and trust in him. But the obedience of children is not different from that of servants, and their trust is paralyzed by God's inexplicable disposition to wrath. In later Judaism the relation became one of right,--the pious man must secure his reward, which is a matter of natural desire, by his own merits and sacrifices, and he always wavers between self-righteous security and anxiety. 2. The Conception of Jesus. Jesus as seen in the synoptic Gospels, knows God as the lofty lord to whom men are subjected in service, and as the just judge; but by inner experiences he recognizes this God as his father who discloses to him his love, and he encourages men to believe not that they are God's children, but that they become such by conducting themselves and feeling as children. The innovation lies in the quality of the relation. In spite of God's physical and spiritual superiority, man is free from the feeling of oppression and insecurity, in the first place, before the demanding will of God. Through the recognition of God as Father, Jesus knows himself urged to the service of saving love, renouncing every worldly desire, but this service means for him freedom and blessedness (Matt. xi. 28-30), because he feels it as the fulfilment of his own desire (Matt. ix. 36-38), and even as a gain in greatness and power (Matt. xx. 25-28), because in it he is raised above the Mosaic law (Matt. v. 22). In the same way he delivers these whom he encourages to believe in God's fatherly love and forgiveness, from the oppression of the law by showing them as its innermost core (Matt. v. 9, 48) the imitation of the example of the perfect God in a love which surpasses all bounds of human love. From this conception of the divine law all hedonistic elements have been removed; it expresses a reverent and cheerful devotion to an ideal. Where Jesus also uses God's retribution as an ethical motive and thus seems to substitute a relation of right for the relation of adoption, he deepens and purifies the traditional view. Reward goes hand in hand with conduct; a childlike disposition is rewarded with the dignity due to God's children (Matt. v. 9) and with physical homogeneousness (Luke vii. 36); justice is rewarded with justice (Matt. v. 6; vi. 33). He promises the kingdom (Matt. x. 13-16) to the unassuming childlike disposition, and promises reward, not to individual performance, but to the spirit which reveals itself in it (Matt. vii. 15, xxv. 23), excludes the equivalence between work and reward (Matt. xx. 1-16), and appeals to fear not as dread of physical evil, but as anxiety lest the life with God (Matt. x. 18) be lost. In the second place, the trust in God's fatherly guidance which Jesus himself proves and encourages, is of a singular surety and joyfulness. Whoever through fear of God is kept in his way, may be certain of the acquisition of salvation (Luke x. 20) and may hope not only to gain eternal life (Luke xii. 32), but already here on earth he knows himself to be lifted above all oppression of the world since he may be sure that his prayers are granted (Matt. vii. 7) and may expect from God his daily bread and know himself protected by God in every way (Matt. x. 28-31) and may venture even that which seems impossible (Mark xi. 22) and be sure of the forgiveness of his sins and of his protection in temptation (Matt. vi. 12, 13) and triumph over all hostile powers (Luke x. 19). In opposition to philosophy, this idea is new in so far as God in the current systems of philosophy was represented as father only as the shaper of the world, and the capacity of becoming a child of God was merely a general function of reason. The religious importance of the ideal is here only secondary; it originates rather in personal dignity and is an altruism which does not extend to the love of enemies. As faith in a fatherly providence, it believes only in an order of the world which offers an opportunity to prove one's strength of will, and thus does not attain submission as expressed in Christian adoption, but only resignation. Jesus speaks of adoption only in the imperative,--we must become children of God by imitation of God and trust in God; but he admonishes to become such by pointing to God's disposition and promise. His word receives additional emphasis from his personality which lives in God; and he judges the conduct of God's child in the last analysis as an effect of God (Matt. xi. 28, xv. 3; Mark x. 27). Therefore it is the natural expression of the experience of the Christian Church when in the New Testament the awakening of the child's life by the effect of divine grace is considered fundamental (II Cor. v. 17; I Pet. i. 3, 23; John iii. 5). 3. Paul's Conception. This effect, according to Paul, is juridical, i.e., a real adoption, a granting of the right of children (Gal. iii. 26-27), synonymous with justification; but it is also a real change through the overwhelming influence of the Holy Spirit as an unconscious power like the impersonal powers of nature (Rom. viii. 11; Gal. v. 22). Paul bases the certainty of the right of children upon the fact that through faith and baptism believers belong to Christ, but also upon the experience of the liberating effect of the spirit. The right of children means for him the claim upon the future heritage of the kingdom of God; namely, the participation in God's fatherhood (Rom. iv. 3) and the spiritualization of the body in conforming it to the body of Christ, the first of the sons of God (Rom. viii. 29-30). These figures express the idea that the prevening grace of God establishes a personal relation of love which has an analogy in the intimate communion between father and child. As I am certain that God is on my side and that I am called to eternal life, I may surely trust that he will grant me everything (Rom. viii. 31-32), not only eternal life, but also everything in the world which is not against God (I Cor. iii. 21-22) and that he will lead me through all temptations to that sanctity which belongs to the kingdom of God (I Thess. v. 23). The faith which corresponds on our part to God's intention of love remains secure even against troubles and hostile world powers because the latter can not separate from the love of God (Rom. viii. 38-39) and the former must subserve the upbuilding of the inner man (II Cor. iv. 16-18). Thus the essential feature of this child-life is not fear, as under the Law and its curse, but rather unshakable joy which expresses itself in giving thanks as the key-note of prayer. The unconscious impulse which the ethical life of the Christian assumes if he puts the impulse of the spirit in place of the Law, he modifies by bringing to expression also conscious ethical motives; namely, the love of God as experienced by him, and his call to the kingdom of God, which demand a conduct worthy of both. Even an overpowerful desire of his nature he begins to transform into an impulse for consciousness if he guides it into the channel of experienced love (II Cor. v. 15; Gal. ii. 20). But in all joy, happiness, and freedom with relation to God, the Christian is prevented from excesses by that humility which in all progress and success gives due honor to God (I Cor. xv. 10). It seems a contradiction when Paul in spite of all speaks of a retribution on the part of God according to works and awakens fear of the judgment. The seeming relation of right is only an expression for the fact that the relation of father and children, although resting upon God's free love, is mutual. The reward is a success of mutual effort (Gal. vi. 7, 8). It is attained, not by a sum of individual works, but by a sanctified personality (Thess. v. 23) which is absorbed in a uniform activity of life (II Cor. v. 10; I Cor. iii. 13). The fear of which Paul speaks is the fear of watchfulness which takes possession of us in looking at the world and the flesh, but this disagreeable feeling is immediately conquered by the joyful trust that God will protect and perfect us (I Cor. xv. 2; Rom. xi. 20-21). 4. The Gospel and Epistles of John. The Gospel and Epistles of John trace adoption back to the testimony of God (Gospel iii. 5; First Epistle ii. 19). According to them, adoption consists in a close and intimate life in and with God by which there is vouchsafed, on the one hand, the impossibility of sinning and the self-evidence of justice and love to God and our brethren, and, on the other hand, the victory over the world and blessing and the future homogeneousness with God (I John iv. 3; v. 4;). However natural all this may sound, these expressions are only figures for an ethico-personal communion with God, analogous to that between father and child which has its basis in the influence of Christ upon our consciousness, not in a reflected, but spontaneous way. The knowledge of God or the word of Christ (I John ii. 3; Gospel xv. 3) is parallel to the seed of God which remains in the regenerated person and guarantees his sanctity (I John iii. 9). Unity of life with God is an analogon for that unity which on earth exists between the Father and Jesus (John xvii. 21-22), where the Father in preceding love discloses to his Son his whole work and the Son remains in the love of the Father (John xv. 10) by speaking and acting according to the commandment of the Father and being solely concerned with his Father's honor (John v. 44) and yet enjoying full satisfaction, eternal life (John iv. 34, xii. 50), and at the same time fully trusting that the Father is with him and always hears him and in spite of the world brings his work to perfection which through death leads to glory (John viii. 29, xvi. 32, xvii. 4). Correspondingly there follows for his disciples from the certainty of the love of God the duty to love one another and to show the self-evident love of children by keeping the commandments (I John iv. 11, v. 3) which are freedom and life because the disciples are not slaves, but friends of the son of God (John xv. 15) and continuators of his work (John xviii. 18). In this tendency of life they may possess joyfulness (I John ii. 28, iv. 17, 18) in a world full of temptations and enemies and in face of death and judgment and may count upon the return of their love on the part of God through the gift of the spirit and the help of God which is always near, upon the forgiveness of accidental sins, purification, hearing of their prayers, and a place in the heavenly mansion of the Father (John xiv. 2, 3; xiii. 21-22; xv. 2; xvii. 17; I John i. 9). According to Jesus, Paul, and John, the child of God is independent of men and yet he must seek communion with men. Jesus teaches to pray "Our Father"; and according to Paul and John, the spirit communicates with the individual through baptism and makes him a member of the community. 5. The Apologists. The Church has not always maintained this ideal. When its growth necessitated a stricter inculcation of the ethical conditions of salvation, the relation of children was changed under the influence of the Jewish idea of retaliation, of philosophical moralism, and the ideas of Roman law. According to the apologetic writers, to be a child of God means subjectively the ethical resemblance with God which man realizes in himself by his free action on the basis of the knowledge of God as taught by Christ. Since ethics was absorbed in individual practise of virtue and consciousness of moral freedom, the desire for a counterbalance against the moral checks from the world was not felt so much. Irenæus follows Paul by conceiving adoption as the specific effect of redemption; but he understands it, in the first place, in a moralistic sense, as a call to the fulfilment of the deepened law of nature, not only in increased love, but fear; in the second place, in a physical sense, as the sacramental elevation of the spirit to deification or imperishableness. This combination remains a characteristic feature of the Greek Church. 6. Augustine. Augustine deepened the physical change into an ethical change which governs ethical actions. Because God's nature is first of all justice, and only secondarily immortal, adoption, as being deification, is in the first place justification, infusion of love (amando Deum efficimur dii--"by loving God we are made gods"; again--"he who justifies also deifies, because by justifying he makes sons of God"), which takes place under the influence of faith, i.e., hopeful prayer, or through baptism. Thus man faces the task--Reddite diem, efficimini spiritus ("Do your part, and become spirit"). Adoption becomes a reality in a process in which the capacity for it increases by continual forgiveness and inspiration of love until after death the second adoption occurs, the liberation from the body which contains the law of sin. Our life is a relation between child and father in so far as love to God, childlike fear, and hope rule in it. But the idea of the New Testament is curtailed in so far as forgiveness concerns always only past sins, and hope is bound to rely upon one's own consciousness of love to God and upon merit, and forgiveness becomes uncertain in consequence of predestination, and in so far as, with the task to serve God in the world, the New Testament manner of trusting in God is also done away with, and a holy indifference takes its place. The relation of God seems to be intensified in so far as there is added as a new element the highest stage of divine love--the mystical contemplation of God; but the apparent plus discloses itself as a minus, since love to God is now conceived of by analogy with that between man and woman instead of that between father and child. Mysticism, it is true, elevates man to freedom from the Church, but it effects also indifference toward men; however, in the premystical stage there shows itself lack of independence of the Church. 7. Scholasticism. In the Occident the curtailment of the childlike in Christian life was still further indulged in by bringing to prominence the ideas of the natural, juridical, and mystical; of the natural in so far as according to the scholastics a habit of grace is infused into the secret recesses of the soul, the existence of which can only be surmised by way of inference from one's own ethical transformation; of the juridical in so far as the provenience of hope from merit ("spes provenit ex meritis") is more strongly emphasized; of the mystical inasmuch as the higher stage of the love of God seems realizable only in a thorough separation from occupation with worldly matters (the lower stage is identified with childlike fear) and inasmuch as even the mysticism of calmness and resignation over against an arbitrary Lord is far inferior to trust in the Father. 8. Luther. It was Luther who again conceived the relation of Christians to God as that of children to a father in the full sense of the word. For Luther Christ is the "mirror of the fatherly heart of God," the revelation and security of God's gracious disposition, and he draws from this "image of grace" faith and individual trust. He differs from Paul in so far as he understands by the inner testimony of the Holy Spirit the personal certainty of faith which has its basis in Christ. As for Paul, so for Luther, forgiveness of sins or justification or adoption is a declaration of the will of God that he adopts us as children. It is more than the remittance of past sins, it is the reception of the whole personality into the grace of God, the transposition into a permanent state which always has to be seized again by faith. Thus it is shown to be an error that meritorious works are necessary in order to obtain grace and eternal life. In this way Luther does not destroy the ethical quality of adoption, but makes it more prominent. For secure trust unites the will with God's entire will in love and thus spontaneously produces, without needing the instruction and inculcation of the law, the free and cheerful fulfilment of the will of God which takes place without any thought of reward and in which eternal life is enjoyed. This psychological derivation of morality from the nature of faith actually invalidates Luther's other derivation from the natural or unconscious impulse of the Holy Spirit. Only his opposition to the doctrine of merits made him forget to do justice to the eschatological motives of morality as they are found in Jesus and Paul, although he might have done so, considering his premises; for will needs an aim and for the will united with God in faith and love, this aim can only be the completion of that which was begun here. Faith gives him new courage and power for trust in the guidance of the whole life by the Father in which again the joy of eternal life is anticipated, and thus lays the basis for the freedom of the Christian or his royal dominion over all things which manifests itself in fearlessness and pride and defiance of Satan, world, and death as the counterpart of humble submission to God and which through the certainty of the blessing of divine guidance surpasses mysticism--ecstasies as well as resignation in God. This attitude of children is a life which is homogeneous to that of the Father, in the first place, to his disposition, in so far as our trust is a reflex of God's disposition toward us and our love corresponds to the love of God since it is not borrowed from the amiability of men, but is spontaneous, and not a divided love like that of men, but an all-comprehending one; in the second place, to the nature of God, because this love is superhuman, divine, and because faith conquers for itself the power of divine omnipotence. This life of adoption, according to its whole character, can only originate by a birth from above which, according to Luther, takes place since adoption, as vouchsafed by Christ, produces faith and with it new life. Luther also traces back the new life to a problematic effect of the Spirit, like the working of the impersonal powers of nature, which God according to his predestination adds to the word of Christ in the inner life. 9. Later German Theology. During the period of orthodoxy in Germany trust in God on the part of his children was regarded as natural religion. Pietism subordinated adoption to regeneration. In theology as influenced by Hegel, childlike union with God after the example of mysticism was traced back to an inner self-manifestation of the absolute spirit. It was Ritschl who renewed the specific ideas of Luther. J. Gottschick. 10. Two Views Held at Present. At the present time two ideas of adoption are advocated: (1) Resting back on Calvin, it is held that the primary relation of God to man was that of Creator and Governor. Man is son of God, not by virtue of anything in his constitution as a creature of God, nor on account of a natural relation to him as subject of the divine government, but solely by reason of gracious adoption. The only essential sonship is that of Christ primarily as the eternal Son, and secondarily as his humanity shares this prerogative through union with the divine nature. Through adoption the elect in Christ become partakers of Christ's sonship. Adoption is grounded neither in justification nor in regeneration, but in God's free and sovereign grace alone. Through justification the legal and judicial disabilities caused by sin are removed; through regeneration the nature is changed so as to become filial. Thus a basis is laid for the distinction between the state of adoption and the spirit of adoption (R. S. Candlish, The Fatherhood of God, London, 1870; J. Macpherson, Christian Dogmatics, Edinburgh, 1898). (2) According to the other view, man's filial relation to God is archetypal and inalienable. Adoption, in order to be real, necessarily involves the essential and universal Fatherhood of God and the natural and inherent sonship of man to God. By becoming partaker of the spirit of Christ, who, as Son, realized the filial ideal of the race, one passes out of natural into gracious sonship; that is, is adopted into the ethical and spiritual family of God, and so enters upon his ideal filial relation to God and his brotherly relation to men (A. M. Fairbairn, The Place of Christ in Modern Theology, New York, 1893; J. S. Lidgett, The Fatherhood of God, pp. 20-21, Edinburgh, 1902; James Orr, Progress of Dogma, pp. 325-327, New York, 1902). C. A. B. Bibliography: J. Gerhard, Loci Theologici, iv. 311, 374, vii. 219-222, ix. 296-297, Berlin, 1866-75; R. L. Dabney, Syllabus of . . . Systematic and Polemic Theology, pp. 627 sqq., St. Louis, 1878; B. Weiss, Biblical Theology of the New Testament, §§ 17, 20-21, 46, 71, 83, 100, 118, 150, Edinburgh, 1882-83; W. Bousset, Jesu Predigt in ihrem Gegensatz zum Judentum, pp. 41-42, Göttingen, 1892; H. Shultz, Old Testament Theology, ii. 254 sqq., Edinburgh, 1892; R. A. Lipsius, Lehrbuch der evangelisch-protestantischen Dogmatik, pp. 126-129, 584-596, 653-703, Brunswick, 1893; J. McL. Campbell, Nature of the Atonement, pp. 298 sqq., London, 1896; A. Titius, Die neutestamentliche Lehre von der Seligkeit, i. 103-104, ii. 27-28, 138-139, 266-267, Tübingen, 1895-1900; W. Beyschlag, New Testament Theology, i. 60-70, 241, 310, ii. 418-419, 480, Edinburgh, 1896; E. Hatch, Greek Ideas and Usages, their Influence upon the Christian Church, London, 1897; R. V. Foster, Systematic Theology, p. 679, Nashville, 1898; H. Cremer, Die paulinische Rechtfertigungslehre, pp. 71-78, 224-233, 247-248, 265-266, 369-370, Gütersloh, 1899; A. Ritschl, Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation, pp. 75, 96, 507, 534, 603, New York, 1900. Adoptionism ADOPTIONISM (ADOPTIANISM). The Controversy of the Eighth Century. Its Roots (§ 1). Elipandus, Bishop of Toledo (§ 2). Felix, Bishop of Urgel (§ 3). Recantation of Felix (§ 4). Later Adoptionist Tendencies (§ 5). Explanation (§ 6). 1. The Controversy of the Eighth Century. Its Roots. Adoptionism--a heresy maintaining that Christ is the Son of God by adoption--is of interest chiefly for the commotion which it produced in the Spanish and Frankish Churches in the latter part of the eighth century, although the formulas around which the conflict raged can indeed be traced back to the earliest period of Western theology; but the spirit of the controversy and the result showed that the orthodoxy of the eighth century could no longer entirely accept the ancient formulas. The phrases in which such writers as Novatian, Hilary, and Isidore of Seville had spoken not merely of the assumption of human nature by the Son of God, but also of the assumption of man or the eon of man, led by an easy transition to words which seemed to imply that Christ, according to his humanity, was the adopted son of God; and formulas of this kind occur not infrequently in the old Spanish liturgy. 2. Elipandus, Bishop of Toledo. The Spanish bishops of the eighth century, and especially their leader, Elipandus (b. 718; bishop of Toledo from about 780), so used such phrases as to provoke criticism and disapproval first in Asturia, then in the neighboring Frankish kingdom, and finally at Rome. A certain [92]Migetius, preaching in that part of Spain which was held by the Moors, had given a very gross exposition of the doctrine of the Trinity, teaching that there were three bodily persons, and a triple manifestation in history of the one God. Against him Elipandus wrote a letter vindicating the orthodox idea of the immanence of the Trinity, but at the same time establishing a very sharp distinction between the second person of the Trinity and the human nature of Christ. The person of the Son was not that made according to the flesh, in time, of the seed of David, but that begotten by the Father before all worlds; even after the incarnation, the second person of the Godhead is not the bodily, of which Christ says "My Father is greater than I," but that of which he says "I and my Father are one." Elipandus did not mean to do violence to the orthodox teaching by this distinction; but if the expression were pressed, the human nature appeared a different person from the person of the Eternal Word, and the single personality of Christ disappeared. Elipandus defended himself in letters in which he used the expression that Christ was only according to his Godhead the true and real (proprius) Son of God, and according to his manhood an adopted son. The opposition to this view was voiced by Beatus, a priest, and the monk Heterius of Libana. Elipandus wrote in great excitement to the Asturian abbot Fidelis, bitterly attacking his opponents, who first saw the letter when they met Fidelis in Nov., 785, on the occasion of Queen Adosinda's taking the veil. In reply they wrote a treatise, discursive and badly arranged, but strong in its patristic quotations, emphasizing the unity of Christ's personality. The conflict was complicated by political circumstances and by the efforts of Asturia, to attain independence of the most powerful Spanish bishop. Complaints were carried to Rome, and Adrian I. pronounced at once against Elipandus and his supporter, Ascaricus, whom he judged guilty of Nestorianism. 3. Felix, Bishop of Urgel. At what period the most prominent representative of Adoptionism, Felix, bishop of Urgel in the Pyrenees, first took part in the strife is unknown. At the synod of Regensburg in 792, he defended the heresy in the presence of Charlemagne, but the bishops rejected it. Felix, although he had retracted his doctrine, was sent by the emperor to Rome, where Pope Adrian kept him a prisoner until he signed an orthodox confession, which on his return to Urgel he repudiated as forced, and then fled to Moorish territory. In 793 Alcuin, just back from England, wrote to Felix begging him to abandon the suspicious word "adoption," and to bring Elipandus back into the right path; and he followed this up by his controversial treatise Adversus hæresim Felicis. About the same time Elipandus and the Spanish bishops who belonged to his party addressed a letter to the bishops of Gaul, Aquitaine, and Asturia, and to Charlemagne himself, asking for a fair investigation and the restoration of Felix. Charlemagne communicated with the pope, and caused a new investigation of the case in the brilliant assembly at Frankfort (794). Two separate encyclicals were the result--one from the Frankish and German bishops; the other from those of northern Italy--which agreed in condemning Adoptionism. Charlemagne sent these, with one from the pope (representing also the bishops of central and southern Italy) to Elipandus, urging him not to separate himself from the authority of the apostolic see and of the universal Church. Strong efforts were put forth to recover the infected provinces. Alcuin wrote repeatedly to the monks of that region; Leidrad, bishop of Lyons, and the saintly Abbot Benedict of Aniane worked there personally, supporting Bishop Nefrid of Narbonne. In 798 Felix wrote a book and sent it to Alcuin, who replied in the following spring with his more extended treatise Adversus Felicem. Felix must by this time have been able to return to Urgel, as he wrote thence to Elipandus. Leo III. decisively condemned him in a Roman synod of 798 or 799. Alcuin received a contumelious answer, and was anxious to cross swords personally with his antagonist. 4. Recantation of Felix. Leidrad induced Felix to appear before Charlemagne, with the promise of a fair hearing from the bishops. They met at Aix-la-Chapelle in June, 799 (others say Oct., 798). After a lengthy discussion Felix acknowledged himself defeated and was restored to communion, though not to his see, and he was placed in Leidrad's charge. Felix then composed a recantation, and called on the clergy of Urgel to imitate his example. Leidrad and Benedict renewed their endeavors, with such success that Alcuin was soon able to assert that they had reclaimed 20,000 souls. He supported them with a treatise in four books against Elipandus, and prided himself on the conversion of Felix. The heretical leader seems, however, to have quietly retained his old beliefs at Lyons for the rest of his life, and even to have pushed them logically further, since Agobard, Leidrad's successor, accused him of Agnoetism, and wrote a reply to some of his posthumous writings. In the Moorish part of Spain, Elipandus seems to have had a numerous following; but here also he found determined opponents. The belief was gradually suppressed, though Alvar of Cordova (d. about 861) found troublesome remnants of it. 5. Later Adoptionist Tendencies. With the rise of scholastic theology there was a natural tendency of rigid dialectic to lead away from the Christology of Cyril and Alcuin toward a rational distinction between the two natures, not so much with any wish to insist on this as from a devotion to the conception of the immutability of God. This caused the charge of Nestorianism to be brought against Abelard. Peter Lombard's explanations of the sense in which God became man leaned in the same direction. A German defender of this aspect of the question, Bishop Eberhard of Bamberg, in the twelfth century, accused his opponents roundly of Eutychianism. In fact, the assailants of Adoptionism, starting from their thesis that Christ is really and truly the Son of God, even according to his human nature, because this nature was appropriated by the Son of God, came ultimately, for all their intention of holding the Church's doctrine of the two natures and the two wills, to a quite distinct presentation of an altogether divine Person who has assumed impersonal human substance and nature. They really deserted the position taken by Cyril, though he was one of their main authorities. If one seeks the historical origin of this late form of Christological controversy, distinguishing it from the immediate cause, it must be found in the unsettlement of mind necessarily consequent upon the attempts of the ecclesiastical Christology to reconcile mutually exclusive propositions. 6. Explanation. The intellectual mood which led directly to this distinction between the Son of God and the man in Christ has been variously explained. Some ascribe it to the surrounding Mohammedanism, making it an attempt to remove as far as possible the stumbling-blocks in the doctrine of Christ's nature; but this may be doubted, since the main difficulties from the Moslem standpoint--the Trinity, and the idea of a God who begets and is begotten--remain untouched. Others see in it a survival of the spirit of the old Germanic Arianism, which is excluded by the adherence of the Adoptionists to the orthodox Trinitarian teaching. The obvious relation with Nestorianism and the theology of the school of Antioch has led others to assume a direct influence of the writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia; but there is as little evidence for this as there is for the theory that those whom Elipandus calls his "orthodox brethren" in Cordova, and whom Alcuin supposes to be responsible for these aberrations, were a colony of eastern Christians of Nestorian tendencies who had come to Spain with the Arabs. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: The writings of Elipandus, Felix, and Heterius in MPL, xcvi.; Paulinus, Vita et Litteræ, ib. xcix.; Alcuin, Opera, ib. c.-ci.; Monumenta Alcuiniana, in Jaffé, Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarum, vol. vi., Berlin, 1873; MGH, Epist., iv., 1895; Agobard, Vita et Opera, in MPL, civ.; the Acta of the Synods of Narbonne, Ratisbon, Frankfort, and Aix-la-Chapelle, in Harduin, Concilia, iv., in Mansi, Concilia, xiii., in Gallandi, Bibliotheca, xiii., and MGH, Concilia, ii., 1904; C. W. F. Walch, Historia Adoptianorum, Göttingen, 1755; idem, Entwurf einer vollständigen Historíe der Ketzereien, vol. iii., 11 vols., Leipsic, 1762-85; F. C. Baur, Die Christliche Lehre von der Dreieinigkeit und Menschwerdung Gottes, 3 vols., Berlin, 1841-43; Rettberg, i. (1846) 428; J. C. Robertson, History of the Christian Church, 590-1122, London, 1856; A. Helfferich, Der westgothische Arianismus und die spanische Ketzergeschichte, Berlin, 1860; J. Bach, Dogmengeschichte des Mittelalters, i. 102 sqq., Vienna, 1873; K. Werner, Alcuin und sein Jahrhundert, Paderborn, 1876; C. J. B. Gaskoin, Alcuin, pp. 79 sqq., London, 1904; DCB i. 44-47; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, iii. 642-693, 721-724; Hauck, KD, ii. 289 sqq. Adoration of the Sacrament ADORATION OF THE SACRAMENT: A term of the Roman Catholic Church, where, in consequence of the doctrine of transubstantiation which affirms the presence of Christ in the Eucharist under the species of bread and wine, divine worship is paid to the Sacrament of the altar, a worship that includes adoration. This adoration is manifested in various ways, especially in genuflexions and, if the Sacrament be solemnly exposed, in prostrations. Certain forms of devotion are intended to promote adoration of the Sacrament, notably the ceremony called Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament, the Forty Hours Devotion, and the practise of perpetual adoration which secures the presence of adorers before the altar at all hours of the day and night. A congregation of priests, the Society of Priests of the Most Holy Sacrament, is devoted particularly to the worship of Christ on the altar. John T. Creagh. Ad Quercum, Synodus AD QUERCUM, SYNODUS. See [93]Chrysostom. Adrammelech ADRAMMELECH, ?-dram´el-ec: 1. Name of a deity worshiped with child-sacrifice by the colonists whom Sargon, king of Assyria, transplanted from Sepharvaim to Samaria (II Kings xvii. 31; cf. xviii. 34; Isa. xxxvi. 19, xxxvii. 13). Since Sepharvaim is probably the Syrian city Shabara'in, mentioned in a Babylonian chronicle as having been destroyed by Shalmaneser IV., the god Adrammelech is no doubt a Syrian divinity. The name has been explained as meaning "Adar the prince," "splendor of the king," and "fire-king," while others think that the original reading was "Adadmelech." Since the name is Aramaic, the last is to be preferred. 2. According to II Kings xix. 37 and Isa. xxxvii. 38, Adrammelech was the name of the son and murderer of the Assyrian king Sennacherib. The form corresponds to the "Adramelus" of Abydenus in the Armenian chronicle of Eusebius (ed. A. Schöne, i., Berlin, 1875, p. 35) and the "Ardumuzanus" of Alexander Polyhistor (p. 27). Bibliography: (1) Schrader, KAT, ii. 408, 450; P. Scholz, Götzendienst und Zauberwesen bei den alten Hebräern, pp. 401-405, Ratisbon, 1877. (2) H. Winckler, Der Mörder Sanheribs, in ZA, ii. (1887) 392-396. Adrian ADRIAN: Author of an extant Introduction to the Holy Scriptures, written in Greek. He was evidently a Greek-speaking Syrian; but nothing is to be learned of his life from the book. There is no doubt, however, that he is identical with the monk and presbyter Adrian to whom St. Nilus addressed three letters (ii. 60, iii. 118, 266, in MPG, lxxix. 225-227, 437, 516-517), and who lived in the first half of the fifth century. This work is no introduction in the modern sense, but a piece of Biblical rhetoric and didactics, aiming to explain the figurative phraseology of the Scriptures, especially of the Old Testament, from numerous examples. It closes with hints for correct exegesis. The hermeneutical and exegetical principles of the author are those of the Antiochian school. F. Gössling edited the Greek text with German translation and an introduction (Berlin, 1887). G. Krüger. Bibliography: A. Merx, Rede vom Auslegen, pp. 64-67, Halle, 1879. Adrian ADRIAN: The name of six popes. Adrian I.: Pope 772-795. A Roman of noble birth, he entered the clerical state under Paul I., and was ordained deacon by Stephen III., whom he succeeded Feb. 1, 772, not, apparently, by as unanimous a choice as the official record of his election asserts; for soon afterward he encountered vehement opposition from the Lombard party in Rome led by Paul Afiarta. His adherence to the Frankish faction, his hesitation to crown the sons of Karlman, who had fled to Pavia, and thus to set them up as pretenders against Charlemagne, and the imprisonment of Afiarta by Archbishop Leo of Ravenna at his orders incited the Lombard king Desiderius to invade the Roman territory, and finally to march on Rome itself. Adrian appealed for help to Charlemagne, who arrived in Italy in Sept., 773, and forced Desiderius to shut himself up in Pavia. Aided by Charlemagne. During the siege of that town, which lasted till the following June, Charlemagne suddenly appeared unannounced in Rome. Adrian, though alarmed, gave him a brilliant reception. On Apr. 6 a meeting took place in St. Peter's, at which, according to the Vita Hadriani, the emperor was exhorted by the pope to confirm the donation of his father, Pepin, and did so, even making some additions of territory. This donation, which rests solely upon the authority of the Vita (xli.-xliii.), if substantiated, has a great importance for the development of the temporal sovereignty of the popes. The question has received much attention, and its literature is scarcely exceeded in bulk by that of any other medieval controversy. No sure and universally recognized result, however, has been reached. Some modern historians (Sybel, Ranke, Martens) consider the story a pure invention; others (Ficker, Duchesne) accept it; and a middle theory of partial interpolation has also been upheld (Scheffer-Boichorst). All that can be maintained with certainty is that Charlemagne gave a promise of a donation, and the geographical delimitations give rise to difficult problems. Disagreements with Charlemagne. In the years immediately following Charlemagne's return from Italy, his friendly relations with Adrian were disturbed by more than one occurrence. Archbishop Leo of Ravenna seized some cities from the pope, who complained to Charlemagne; but Leo visited the Frankish court to defend himself, and met with a not unfavorable reception. Charlemagne's keen insight can not have failed to read imperfectly masked covetousness between the lines of Adrian's repeated requests for the final fulfilment of the promise of 774; e.g., in the hope held out of a heavenly reward if he should enlarge the Church's possessions; in the profuse congratulations on his victory over the Saxons, which was attributed to the intercession of St. Peter, grateful for the restitution of his domain; in the comparison drawn by Adrian between Charlemagne and "the most God-fearing emperor Constantine the Great," who "out of his great liberality exalted the Church of God in Rome and gave her power in Hesperia [Italy]"--expressions which have caused a subordinate controversy as to whether the so-called [94]Donation of Constantine is referred to. How far Adrian's consciousness of his own importance had grown is evident from the fact that while in the beginning of his reign he had dated his public documents by the years of the Greek emperors, from the end of 781 he dated them by the years of his own pontificate. Charlemagne Again Helps. Yet Adrian could not afford to despise the Greeks; they joined the Lombard dukes of Benevento and Spoleto, and forced him once more to turn for help to Charlemagne, who made a short descent into Italy in 776, put down the revolt of the duke of Friuli against both him and the pope, but did nothing more until 780. In 781 he visited Rome again when his sons were anointed as kings--Pepin of Italy and Louis of Aquitaine. Charlemagne came to Italy for the fourth time in 786 to crush Arichis of Benevento, and Adrian succeeded in obtaining from him additional territory in southern Italy. But various misunderstandings in Adrian's last years gave rise to a report that Charlemagne and Offa of Mercia had taken counsel together with a view to the pope's deposition. The iconoclastic controversy (see [95]Images and Image-worship, II., § 3) brought fresh humiliations from Charlemagne and from the Greek emperor Constantine VI. and his mother, the empress Irene. When the last-named was taking steps to restore the veneration of images in the Eastern Church she requested Adrian to be present in person at a general council soon to be held, or at least to send suitable legates (785). In his reply, after commending Irene and her son for their determination respecting the images, Adrian asked for a restitution of the territory taken from the Roman see by the iconoclastic emperor Leo III. in 732, as well as of its patriarchal rights in Calabria, Sicily, and the Illyrian provinces which Leo had suppressed. At the same time he renewed the protest made by Gregory the Great against the assumption of the title of universalis patriarcha by the Patriarch of Constantinople. Council of Nicæa in 787. When, however, the council met at Nicæa in 787, while it removed the prohibition of images, it paid no attention to any of these demands. The acts of this council, which Adrian sent to Charlemagne in 790, provoked the emperor's vigorous opposition, and led ultimately to the drawing up of the [96]Caroline Books, in which the position of the Frankish Church with reference to both the Roman and the Greek was made plain, and the decisions of the Council of Nicæa were disavowed. Although Adrian, after receiving a copy, took up the defense of the council with vehemence, Charlemagne had the contention of the Caroline Books confirmed at the Synod of Frankfort in 794. It may, however, have been some consolation to Adrian's legates that the same synod publicly condemned [97]Adoptionism, against which the Roman as well as the Frankish Church had been struggling. Adrian died not long after (Dec. 25, 795). Throughout his long pontificate Adrian had been too exclusively dominated by the one idea of gaining as much advantage as possible in lands and privileges from the strife between the Franks and Lombards. He rendered no slight services to the city of Rome, rebuilding the walls and aqueducts, and restoring and adorning the churches. His was not a strong personality, however, and he never succeeded in exercising a dominant or even a strongly felt influence upon the policy of western Europe. (Carl Mirbt.) Bibliography: Vita Hadriani, in Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, i. 486-523; Einhard, Vita Caroli, in MGH, Script., ii. (1829) 426-463; Vita Caroli, ed. G. Waitz, in Script, rer. Germ., 4th ed., 1830; also in Jaffé, Regesta, iv., Eng. transl. in Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, pp. 38-45; Codicis Carolini epistolæ, in Jaffé, l.c. iv. and in MPL, xcvi.; one of Adrian's letters, in verse, dated 774, in MGH, Poet. lat. ævi Caroli, i. (1881) 90-91; Jaffé, Regesta, i. 289-306, Leipsic, 1885; De sancto Hadriano papa I an III Nonantulæ in editione Mutinensi, in ASB, July, viii. 643-649 ; P. T. Hald, Donatio Caroli Magni, Copenhagen, 1836; T. D. Mack, De donatione a Carolo Magno, Münster, 1861; J. Ficker, Forschungen zur Reichs- und Rechts-Geschichte Italiens, ii. 329 sqq., 347 sqq., Innsbruck, 1869; A. O. Legge, Growth of the Temporal Power of the Papacy, London, 1870; W. Wattenbach, Geschichte des römischen Papstthums, pp. 47 sqq., Berlin, 1876; O. Kuhl, Der Verkehr Karls des Grossen mit Papst Hadrian I., Königsberg,1879; R. Genelin, Das Schenkungsversprechen und die Schenkung Pippins, Vienna, 1880; W. Martens, Die römische Frage unter Pippin und Karl dem Grossen, pp. 129 sqq., 368-387, Stuttgart, 1881; idem, Die Besetzung des päpstlichen Stuhles unter den Kaisern Heinrich III. und IV., Freiburg, 1886; idem, Beleuchtung der neuesten Kontroversen über die römische Frage unter Pippin and Karl dem Grossen, Munich, 1898; H. von Sybel, Die Schenkungen der Karolinger an die Päpste, in Kleine historische Schriften, iii. 65-115, Stuttgart, 1881; Liber Pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, i., pp. ccxxxiv.-ccxliii., Paris, 1884; J. von Pflugk-Harttung, Acta pontificum Romanorum inedita, ii. 22 sqq., Stuttgart, 1884; P. Scheffer-Boichorst, Pippins und Karls des Grossen Schenkungsversprechung, pp. 193-212, Innsbruck, 1884; L. von Ranke, Weltgeschichte, v., part 1, p. 117, Leipsic, 1885; S. Abel, Jahrbücher des fränkischen Reiches unter Karl dem Grossen, i. 768-788, Leipsic, 1883 (and ii. 789-814, by B. Simson, 1888), and for donation of Charlemagne, ib. i. 159 sqq.; P. Kehr, Die sogenannte karolingischen Schenkung von 774, in Sybel's Historische Zeitschrift, lxx. (new ser., 1893) xxxiv. 385-441; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vol. iii.; Eng. transl., vol. v.; Hauck, KD, vol. ii.; Mann, Popes, I., vol. ii. 395-497. Adrian II Adrian II.: Pope 867-872. He was the son of Talarus, of a Roman family which had already produced two popes, Stephen IV. (768-772) and Sergius II. (844-847). He was a married man before entering the clerical state. Gregory IV. made him a cardinal. His great benevolence won the hearts of the Romans, and he twice refused the papacy, after the death of Leo IV. (855) and of Benedict III. (858). A unanimous choice by both clergy and people, however, forced him at the age of seventy-five to accept it in succession to Nicholas I. (d. Nov. 13, 867). The election was confirmed by Emperor Louis II., and Adrian's consecration followed on Dec. 14. Forces Lothair II. to Take Back His Wife. His predecessor had left him a number of unfinished tasks. In the first place, it was necessary to arrive at a final decision concerning a matter which had long and deeply troubled the Frankish Church; namely, the matrimonial relations of King Lothair II. Adrian firmly insisted that Lothair should take back his legitimate wife Thietberga, at the same time releasing his mistress Walrade from the excommunication pronounced against her by Nicholas, at the request of Louis II., on condition that she should have nothing more to do with Lothair. The last-named visited Rome in 869 for the purpose of gaining the pope's consent to his divorce from Thietberga. Adrian promised no more than to call a new council to investigate the matter, but restored Lothair to communion after he had sworn that he had obeyed the command of Nicholas I. to break off his relations with Walrade. The king's sudden death at Piacenza on his homeward journey, a few weeks later, was considered to be a divine judgment. The efforts of the pope to enforce the claim of Louis II. to Lorraine were fruitless; immediately after Lothair's death his uncle, Charles the Bald, had himself crowned at Metz, though less than a year later he was forced by his brother, Louis the German, to divide the inheritance of Lothair in the treaty of Meersen (Aug. 8, 870). Opposed by Hincmar of Reims. Adrian's attempts to interfere in Frankish affairs were stubbornly resisted by [98]Hincmar of Reims, who wrote (Epist., xxvii.), ostensibly as the opinions of certain men friendly to the West-Frankish king, that a pope could not be bishop and king at one and the same time; that Adrian's predecessors had claimed to decide in ecclesiastical matters only; and that he who attempted to excommunicate a Christian unjustly deprived himself of the power of the keys. When a synod at Douzy near Sedan (Aug., 871) excommunicated Bishop Hincmar of Laon, on grave charges brought against him both by the king and by his own uncle, the more famous Hincmar, the pope allowed an appeal to a Roman council, and brought upon himself in consequence a still sterner warning from Charles the Bald by the pen of Hincmar of Reims (MPL, cxxiv. 881-896), with a threat of his personal appearance in Rome. Adrian executed an inglorious retreat. He wrote to Charles praising him for his virtues and his benefits to the Church, promised him the imperial crown on Louis's death, and offered the soothing explanation that earlier less pacific letters had been either extorted from him during sickness or falsified. In the matter of Hincmar of Laon, he made partial concessions, which were completed by his successor, John VIII. Conflict with Photius. Another conflict which Nicholas I. had left to Adrian, that with Photius, patriarch of Constantinople, seemed likely to have a happier issue, when Photius was condemned first by a Roman synod (June 10, 869), and then by the general council at Constantinople in the same year, the papal legates taking a position which seemed to make good the claims of the Roman see. But Emperor Basil the Macedonian dealt these claims a severe blow when he caused the envoys of the Bulgarians (see [99]Bulgarians, Conversion of the) to declare to the legates that their country belonged to the patriarchate not of Rome, but of Constantinople. Adrian's protests were in vain; a Greek archbishop appeared among the Bulgarians, and the Latin missionaries had to give place. Moravia, on the other hand, was firmly attached to Rome, Adrian allowing the use of a Slavic liturgy, and naming Methodius archbishop of Sirmium. After a pontificate marked principally by defeat, Adrian died between Nov. 13 and Dec. 14, 872. (Carl Mirbt.) Bibliography: The Letters of Adrian in Mansi, Collectio, xv. 819-820; in MPL, cxxii., cxxix., and in Bouquet, Recueil, vol. vii.; Vita Hadriani II., in Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, ii. 173-174, and in L. A. Muratori, Rerum Italicorum Scriptores, III. ii. 306, 25 vols., Milan, 1723-51; Ado, Chronicon in MGH, Script., ii. (1829) 315-326; idem in MPL, cxxiii.; Annales Fuldenses, in MGH, Script., i. (1826) 375-395, and separately in Script. rer. Germ., ed. F. Kurze Hanover, 1891; Hincmar, Annales, in MGH, Script., i. (1826) 455-515, and in MPL, cxxv.; Hincmar, Epistolæ in MPL, cxxiv., cxxvi.; Regino, Chronicon, in MGH, Script., i. (1826) 580 sqq.; idem, in MPL, cxxxii. (separately ed. F. Kurze, Hanover, 1890); P. Jaffé, Regesta, i. 368, 369, Leipsic 1885; Bower, Popes, ii. 267-282; F. Maassen, Eine Rede des Papstes Hadrian II. von Jahre 869, die erste umfassende Benutzung der falschen Decretalen in Sitzungsberichte der Wiener Akademie , lxxii. (1872) 521; Hefele Conciliengeschichte, vol. iv.; P. A. Lapotre, Hadrian II. et les fausses décrétales, in Revue des questions historiques, xxvii. (1880) 377 sqq.; B. Jungmann, Dissertationes selectæ in hist. eccl., iii., Ratisbon, 1882; Milman, Latin Christianity, iii. 35-80; H. Schrörs, Hinkmar, Freiburg, 1884; J. J. Böhmer, Regesta imperii, I. Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter den Karolingern, pp. 751-918; idem, ed. E. Mühlbacher, i. 460 sqq., Innsbruck, 1889; Hauck, KD, ii. 557 sqq., 699-700; J. Langen, Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Nikolaus I. bis Gregor VII., pp. 113-170, Bonn, 1892; E. Mühlbacher, Deutsche Geschichte unter den Karolingern, 1896; E. Dümmler, Über eine Synodalrede Papst Hadriane II., Berlin, 1899; Treaty of Meersen, Eng. transl. in Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, pp. 64-65. Adrian III Adrian III.: Pope 884-885. He was a Roman by birth, the son of Benedict. The story of severe punishments inflicted by him points to revolts in the city during his rule. The assertion of the untrustworthy Martinus Polonus that he decreed that a newly elected pope might proceed at once to consecration without waiting for imperial confirmation, and that the imperial crown should thenceforth be worn by an Italian prince, are confirmed by no contemporary evidence. He died near Modena Aug., 885, on his way to attend a diet at Worms on the invitation of Charles the Fat, and was buried at Nonantula. [He was the first pope to change his name on election, having previously been called Agapetus.] (Carl Mirbt.) Bibliography: Epistola, in Bouquet, Recueil, ix. 200, and in MPL, cxxvi.; Bulla anni 885, in Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft für ä d. Geschichte, xi. (1885) 374, 376; Vita, in Liber Pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, ii. (1892) 225, and in L. A. Muratori, Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, III. ii. 440-446, 25 vols., Milan, 1723-51; Annales Fuldenses, in MGH, Script., i. (1826) 375-395 (separately in Script. rer. Germ., ed. F. Kurze, Hanover, 1891); Chronica Benedicti, in MGH, Script., iii. (1839) 199; J. M. Watterich, Pontifcum Romanorum vitæ, i. 29, 650, 718, Leipsic, 1862; P. Jaffé, Regesta, i. 426-427; Bower, Popes, ii. 293-294; R. Baxmann, Die Politik der Päpste von Gregor I. bis auf Gregor VII., ii. 60 sqq., Elberfeld, 1869; E. Dümmler, Geschichte les Ostfränkischen Reiches, ii. 247, 248, Berlin, 1888; J. Langen, Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Nikolaus I. bis Gregor VII., pp. 298 sqq., Bonn, 1892; T. R. v. Sickel, Die Vita Hadriani Nonantulana und die Diurnus Handschrift, in Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft für ä. d. Geschichte, xviii. (1892) 109-133. Adrian IV Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspeare; the only Englishman in the list of the popes): Pope 1154-59. He was born in England about the beginning of the twelfth century. He went to France as a boy, studied at Paris and Arles, enduring severe privations, and finally settled down in the monastery of St. Rufus near Avignon. Here he became prior, then abbot (1137), but met with bitter opposition from the monks when he attempted to introduce reforms. Eugenius III. made him cardinal bishop of Albano, and chose him (1152) for the difficult mission of regulating the relations of Norway and Sweden to the archbishopric of Lund. Returning to Rome, he was welcomed with high honors by Anastasius IV., whom he succeeded on Dec. 4, 1154. Arnold of Brescia and Frederick Barbarossa. His first troubles came through [100]Arnold of Brescia, who, besides his ethical opposition to the hierarchy, aimed at reestablishing the ancient sovereignty of Rome and its independence of the papal see. Adrian strove to secure Arnold's banishment, and succeeded in 1155 only by pronouncing an interdict on the city. He made Arnold's capture and delivery to the ecclesiastical authorities a condition of crowning Frederick Barbarossa, who thus sacrificed a man who might have been a powerful auxiliary in his conflicts with this very pope. The first meeting between Frederick and Adrian (June 9, 1155) was marked by friction; but Frederick managed, in return for substantial concessions, to secure his coronation nine days later. The Romans, however, whose subjection to the papal see the new emperor had promised to enforce, refused their recognition; and when Frederick left Rome, the pope and cardinals accompanied him, practically as fugitives. Frederick had also promised to subdue William I. of Sicily, and was inclined to carry out his promise, but the pressure of the German princes forced him to recross the Alps. William I. of Sicily. Adrian then attempted to pursue his conflict with William, and, by the aid of the latter's discontented vassals, forced him to offer terms. When, however, these were not accepted the king rallied his forces, the tide turned, and Adrian was obliged to grant his opponent the investiture of Sicily, Apulia, and Capua, and to renounce important ecclesiastical prerogatives in Sicily (Treaty of Benevento June, 1156). In consequence of this settlement, he was enabled to return to Rome at the end of the year, but the emperor resented this apparent desertion of their alliance, as well as the injury to his suzerainty by the papal investiture. An open breach came when, at the Diet of Besançon, in Oct., 1157, the papal legates (one of them the future Alexander III.) delivered a letter from their chief which spoke of the conferring of the imperial crown by the ambiguous term beneficium. The chancellor, Reginald, archbishop of Cologne, in his German rendering, gave it the sense of a fief of the papal see; and the legates thought it prudent to leave the assembly and retreat speedily to Rome. Rebuffed by Frederick Barbarossa. Imperial letters spread the same indignation among the people; and when Adrian required the prelates of Germany to obtain satisfaction from Frederick for his treatment of the legates, he was met by the decided expression of their disapproval of the offending phrase. Adrian's position was rendered more difficult by the appearance of a Greek expedition in Italy and by a revolt in Rome; he offered the concession of a brief in which he explained the objectionable word in the innocent sense of "benefit." Frederick took this as a confession of weakness, and when he crossed the Alps to subdue the Lombard towns (1158), he required an oath of fealty to himself, as well as substantial support from the Italian bishops. Attaining the summit of his power with the conquest of Milan in September, two months later he had the imperial rights solemnly declared by the leading jurists of Bologna. This declaration constituted him the source of all secular power and dignity, and was a denial equally of the political claims of the papacy and of the aspirations of the Lombard towns. The breach with Adrian was still further widened by his hesitation to confirm the imperial nomination to the archbishopric of Ravenna; and an acute crisis was soon reached. An exchange of communications took place, whose manner was intended on both sides to be offensive; and Frederick was roused to a higher pitch of anger when the papal legates, besides accusing him of a breach of the treaty of Constance, demanded that he should thenceforth receive no oath of fealty from the Italian bishops, that he should either restore the inheritance of Countess Matilda, Spoleto, Sardinia, Corsica, Ferrara, etc., to the Roman see, or pay a tribute for those lands, and that he should recognize the right of the successor of St. Peter to complete and unlimited dominion in Rome. These claims he met by declaring roundly that on any strict interpretation of his rights the pope also would be bound to take the oath of fealty, and that all the latter's possessions were but imperial domains held in consequence of Sylvester's investiture by Constantine. Impending Conflict Stopped by Adrian's Death. Both the opponents sought for allies in the impending struggle. Adrian, who was the sworn foe of the Roman republic and its liberties, joined hands with the Lombard communes who were struggling for their own. The emperor, who was doing his best to abolish communal liberty in the north of Italy, aided the Romans to uphold the principles of Arnold of Brescia. Adrian was already taking counsel with the cardinals as to the advisability of pronouncing a sentence of excommunication against Frederick when death overtook him at Anagni Sept. 1, 1159. Adrian was a ruler who grasped clearly the ideal of a papacy striving for universal domination, and contended passionately for its accomplishment; but John of Salisbury (who, as ambassador of the king of England, had opportunity to study him at close range) records that there were moments when the terrible burden of his office weighed almost unbearably upon him. (Carl Mirbt.) Bibliography: Epistolæ et privilegia, in Bouquet, Recueil, xv. 666-893; idem, in MPL, clxxxviii.; Bullæ, in Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft für ä d. Geschichte, ii. (1876) 211-213, xv. (1889) 203-206; Vita, in Liber Pontifalis, ed. Duchesne, 1892, ii. 388 sqq.; Otto of Frisengen, Gesta Friderici I., in MGH, Script., xx. (1868) 403 sqq.; Radericus of Frisengen, Continuatio (of Otto's Gesta), ib. pp. 454 sqq.; Jaffé, Regesta, i.; J. M. Watterich, Romanorum pontificum vitæ, i. 323-336, Leipsic, 1823; Bower, Popes, 1845, ii. 487-502; R. Raby, Historical Sketch of Pope Adrian IV., London, 1849; H. Reuter, Geschichte Alexander's III., vol. i., Leipsic, 1860; Fr. v. Raumer, Geschichte der Hohenstaufen, ii., ib. 1871; Milman, Latin Christianity, London, 1883; DNB, i. 143-146; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, v. 527-566; J. Langen, Geschichte der römischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III., pp. 417-438, Bonn, 1893; Eng. transl. of Letter to Barbarossa (Sept. 20, 1157), Manifesto of Frederick I., Letter to the German Bishops and their Letter to Adrian, and Letter to the Emperor (Feb., 1158), in E. F. Henderson, Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages, London, 1892; J. Jastrow and G. Winter, Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Hohenstaufen, vol. i., Stuttgart, 1897; S. Malone, Adrian IV. and Ireland, London, 1899; O. J. Thatcher, Studies Concerning Adrian IV., Chicago, 1903; Hauck, KD, iv. 35, 199-227; Eng. transl. of Treaty of Constance, Stirrup Episode, Treaty of Adrian IV. and William of Sicily, Letters of Adrian (1157-58), and Manifesto of Frederick l., in O. J. Thatcher and E. H. McNeal, Source Book for Mediæval History, New York, 1905. Adrian V. (Ottobuono de' Fieschi): Pope 1276. He was the nephew of Innocent IV., and as cardinal deacon had been sent to England by Clement IV. to mediate between Henry III. and his barons. He was elected July 12, 1276, in a conclave on which Charles of Anjou had enforced all the rigor of the regulations of Gregory X.; and one of Adrian's first acts was to abrogate them as oppressive to the cardinals. Before he could promulgate any new system, however, and even before he had been ordained priest, he died at Viterbo Aug. 18, 1276. (Carl Mirbt.) Bibliography: A. Chroust, Ein Brief Hadrians V., in Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft für ä. d. Geschichte, xx. (1894) 233 sqq.; Bower, Popes, iii. 24; A. Potthast, Regesta pontificum Romanorum, ii. 1709, Berlin, 1875; Milman, Latin Christianity, vi. 134. Adrian VI. (Adrian Rodenburgh or Dedel, more probably the latter): Pope 1522-23. He was born in Utrecht, was educated by the Brethren of the Common Life and at Louvain, and became professor and vice-chancellor of the university. During this period he composed several theological writings, including a commentary on the Sententiæ of Peter Lombard. In 1507 Emperor Maximilian I. appointed him tutor to his grandson, Charles of Spain, and in 1515 Ferdinand the Catholic made him bishop of Tortosa. In 1517 he was created cardinal by Leo X. When Charles was made German emperor and went to the Netherlands in 1520, he appointed Adrian regent of Spain. In 1522 the cardinals almost unanimously elected him pope. Friend of Reform. The vexation of the Romans at the choice of a German, moreover a very simple man who was not inclined to continue the splendid traditions of the humanistic popes, lasted during his entire pontificate; more serious minds, however, looked forward to his reign with hope. In spite of the fact that he consented to the condemnation of Luther's writings by the Louvain theologians, and although as inquisitor general he had shown no clemency, yet Erasmus saw in him the right pilot of the Church in those stormy times, and hoped that he would abolish many abuses in the Roman court. Luis de Vives addressed Adrian with his proposals for reform; and Pirkheimer complained to him of the opposition of the Dominicans to learning. Even in the college of cardinals, the few who favored a reformation looked up to him hopefully, and [101]Ægidius of Viterbo transmitted to him a memorial which described the corruption of the Church and discussed the means of redress. Adrian fulfilled these expectations. Concerning indulgences he even endeavored to find a way which might lead to a reconciliation with Luther's conception, viz., to make the effect of the indulgence dependent on the depth of repentance on evidence of it in a reformed life. But here Cardinal Cajetan asserted that the authority of the pope would suffer, since the chief agent would no longer be the pope, but the believer, and the majority agreed with the cardinal. Nothing was done in the matter, no dogma was revised, and the complaints of the Germans increased. Nevertheless, Adrian simplified his household, moneys given for Church purposes were no longer used for the support of scholars and artists, he sought to reform the abuse of pluralities, and opposed simony and nepotism. His effort to influence Erasmus to write against Luther and to bring Zwingli by a letter to his side shows his attitude toward the Reformation in Germany and Switzerland. His Confession. When the diet at Nuremberg was opened in Dec., 1522, he complained in a brief of the rise of heresy in Germany and asked the diet, since mild measures could not be effectual, to employ the means formerly used against Huss. But in his instructions to his legate at the diet, Bishop Chieregati, he took a different tone, and acknowledged that "wantonness," "abuses," and "excesses" were found at the curia. This is the only instance where such a confession received official sanction. An answer was prepared by a committee, which took notice of the confession, refused to execute the edict of Worms before an improvement was visible, and asked for the meeting of a council in a German city, promising to prevent Luther from publishing his polemical writings and to see to it that the preachers proclaimed the pure gospel, but "according to the teaching and interpretation of the Scriptures approved and revered by the Christian Church." Chieregati accepted neither this nor any other answer, but left Nuremberg in haste. In strict papal circles Adrian's confession has not yet been forgiven. He died at Rome Sept. 14, 1523. K. Benrath. Bibliography: P. Burmannus, Hadrianus VI. sive analecta historica, Utrecht, 1727; G. Moringus, Vita Hadriani VI., Louvain, 1536; Bower, Popes, iii. 299-302; L. P. Gachard, Correspondance de Charles V. et d'Adrien VI., Brussels, 1859; J. S. Brewer, Letters and Papers . . . of the Reign of Henry VIII., 4 vols., London, 1862-1901 (especially vol. iii.); G. A. Bergenroth, Calendar . . . relating to the Negotiations between England and Spain, ii., London, 1866; idem, Supplement to vols. i. and ii. (1868); M. Brosch, Geschichte des Kirchenstaates, Vol. i., Hamburg, 1880; C. v. Höfler, Papst Hadrian VI., Vienna, 1880; A. Lapitre, Adrien Vl., Paris, 1880; L. v. Ranke, Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation, ii., Leipsic, 1880; idem, Die römischen Päpste, i., ib. 1889; Eng. transl., i. 71-74, London, 1896; Milman, Latin Christianity; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, ix. 271-299; Creighton, Papacy, vi. 214-273. Adso ADSO: One of the more prominent of the reforming abbots of the tenth century. He belonged to a noble family in the Jura Mountains, became a monk at Luxeuil, and went later to the monastery of Montier-en-Der (120 m. e.s.e. of Paris), in the diocese of Châlons-sur-Marne, reformed about 935 by the abbot Albert, whom he succeeded in 967 or 968. He laid the foundation for a splendid new basilica, remains of which are still standing (cf. Sackur, Die Cluniacenser, ii. 391), and undertook to reform other monasteries, e.g., St. Benignus at Dijon. Like his friends Abbo of Fleury and Gerbert of Reims (cf. Havet, Les Lettres de Gerbert, pp. 6, 74, Paris, 1889), he was interested in learning and investigation; and his library included the writings of Aristotle, Porphyry, Terence, Cæsar, and Vergil. He was often urged to write books, especially the lives of saints, and several works of this class by him may be found in ASM (ii. and iv.; copied in MPL, cxxxvii. 597-700). The most famous of Adso's writings is the earliest, an Epistola ad Gerbergam reginam, de vita et tempore Antichristi, composed before 954, in which he opposes the prevalent notion that the appearance of Antichrist was near at hand. The work was much read, and suffered greatly from mutilations and interpolations (cf. MPL, ci. 1289-98); its original form has been restored by E. Sackur, in Sibyllinische Texte und Forschungen, pp. 104-113, Halle, 1898. S. M. Deutsch. Bibliography: The chief source for Adso's life is an addition of the eleventh century to his Vita S. Bercharii, the patron saint of Montier-en-Der, ch xi., in MPL, cxxxvii. 678-679, and in MGH, Script., iv. (1841) 488. Consult also the Histoire littéraire de la France, vi. 471-492; A. Ebert, Allgemeine Geschichte der Litteratur des Mittelalters im Abendlande, iii. 472-484, Leipsic, 1887; and, especially. E. Sackur, Die Cluniacenser, vol. i., Halle, 1892. Adultery ADULTERY. See [102]Marriage. Advent ADVENT: The first season of the church year. The celebration of Advent in the Western Church was instituted toward the close of the fifth century, in Gaul, Spain, and Italy [but traces of it are found in the Council of Saragossa, 380]. The term was first understood as referring to the birth of Christ, and so the Advent season was a time of preparation for Christmas. Since it commenced at different periods (e.g., at Milan with the Sunday after St. Martin [Nov. 11]; in Rome with the first in December), the number of Sundays in Advent differed in the individual churches. The term adventus was also taken in the wider sense of the coming of Christ in general; hence the lessons for Advent which refer to the second coming of Christ and the last judgment. With it was also connected the notion of the coming of the kingdom of heaven. Thus originated the idea of the triple coming "to man, in man, and against man" or, corresponding to the number four of the Sundays which afterward became general, the notion of the quadruple coming "in the flesh, in the mind, in death, in majesty." In the medieval church the Advent season was a time of fasting and repentance. Hence one finds in it the figure of John the Baptist, as the precursor of Christ and the preacher of repentance. The whole season from Advent to the octave of Epiphany was a [103]tempus clausum until the Council of Trent, which took off the last week. In the Church of Rome Advent has still the character of a penitential season. The color of the vestments then worn is violet. This character of earnest and serious devotion appears in more preaching, teaching, and insistence upon attendance at communion. Fasting during Advent is not a general ordinance of the Church of Rome [being required only on all Fridays, the vigil of Christmas, and the three ember-days in the last week of the season]. With the adoption of the medieval church calendar, the Protestants also accepted the Advent season and Advent lessons. Thus the season retained its double character, preparation for the Christmas festival and contemplation of the different ways of the coming of Christ. Since it has become customary to separate the civil and ecclesiastical chronology and to distinguish between the civil and church years, the first Sunday of Advent has been dignified as the solemn beginning of the new church year. These various relations of the first Sunday of Advent and the whole Advent season explain the variety of the contents of the Advent hymns and prayers. Among Protestants also the Advent season has a twofold character, that of holy joy and of holy repentance. The first Sunday in Advent is no church festival in a full sense, but the relations referred to lift it and the succeeding Sundays above ordinary Sundays. See [104]Church Year. W. Caspari. In the present usage of the West, the season begins on the nearest Sunday to St. Andrew's day (Nov. 30), whether before or after. In the Anglican prayer-book the service for the first Sunday emphasizes the second coming; that for the second, the Holy Scriptures; that for the third, the Christian ministry; while only the fourth relates specifically to the first coming. Advent in the Eastern Church begins on Nov. 14, thus making a season of forty days analogous to Lent. Bibliography: The lectionaries in Liber comieus, i., Oxford, 1893, and in Sacramentarium Gelasianum published in L. A. Muratori, Liturgia romanum vetus, vol. i., Venice, 1748, and in MPL, lxxiv.; Smaragdus, in MPL, cii.; Amalarius Metensis, De ecclesiasticis officiis, ib. cv.; Berno of Reichenau, De celebrations adventus, MPL, cxlii.; Isidore of Seville, De officiis, ed. Cochlæus, Leipsic, 1534, and in M. de la Bigne, Magna bibliotheca veterum patrum, x., Paris, 1654; E. Martène, De antiquis ecclesiæ ritibus, Rouen, 1700. Advent Christians ADVENT CHRISTIANS. See [105]Adventists, 3. Adventists ADVENTISTS: The general name of a body embracing several branches, whose members look for the proximate personal coming of Christ. [106]William Miller, their founder, was a converted deist, who in 1816 joined the Baptist Church in Low Hampton, N. Y. He became a close student of the Bible, especially of the prophecies, and soon satisfied himself that the Advent was to be personal and premillennial, and that it was near at hand. He began these studies in 1818, but did not enter upon the work of the ministry until 1831. The year 1843 was the date agreed upon for the Advent; then, more specifically, Oct. 22, 1844, the failure of which divided a body of followers that had become quite numerous. In the year of his death (1849) they were estimated at 50,000. Many who had been drawn into the movement by the prevalent excitement left it, and returned to the churches from which they had withdrawn. After the second failure, Miller and some other leaders discouraged attempts to fix exact dates. On this question and on the doctrine of the immortality of the soul there have been divisions. There are now at least six distinct branches of Adventists, all of which agree that the second coming of Christ is to be personal and premillennial, and that it is near at hand. The Seventh-day Adventists and the Church of God are presbyterial, the others congregational in their polity. All practise immersion as the mode of baptism. 1. Evangelical Adventists: This is the oldest branch, indeed the original body. The members adopted their Declaration of Principles in conference in Albany, N. Y., in 1845, and in 1858 formed the American Millennial Association to print and circulate literature on eschatology from their point of view. Their organ was the weekly paper The Signs of the Times, which had been established in Boston in 1840; subsequently its name was changed to The Advent Herald and later still to Messiah's Herald, its present (1906) title. The paper has always been published in Boston. The Evangelical Adventists differ from all the other branches in maintaining the consciousness of the dead in Hades and the eternal sufferings of the lost. Bibliography: H. F. Hill, The Saint's Inheritance, Boston, 1852; D. T. Taylor, The Reign of Christ, Peacedale, R. I., 1855, and Boston, 1889. 2. Seventh-day Adventists: This branch dates from 1845, in which year, at Washington, N. H., a body of Adventists adopted the belief that the seventh day of the week is the Sabbath for Christians and is obligatory upon them. In 1850 their chief organ, The Advent Review and Sabbath Herald, was first issued at Battle Creek, Mich., which was made the headquarters of the body: and there in 1860 a publishing association, in 1862 a general annual conference, in 1866 a health institute, and in 1874 an educational society and a foreign mission board were established. In 1903 the publishing business and the general headquarters were removed to Washington, D. C. Their organ is now styled The Review and Herald. Besides the tenet which gives them their name they hold that man is not immortal, that the dead sleep in unconsciousness, and that the unsaved never awake. They practise foot-washing and accept the charismata, maintain a tithing system, and pay great attention to health and total abstinence. They accept Mrs. Ellen G. White as an inspired prophetess. Bibliography: J. N. Andrews, History of the Sabbath and First Day, Battle Creek, 1873 (3d ed., 1887); Life Sketches of Elder James White and his wife Mrs. Ellen G. White, 1880; J. N. Loughborough, Rise and Progress of the Seventh-Day Adventists, ib. 1892. 3. Advent Christians: The organization under this name dates from 1861, when a general association was formed. The organ of these Adventists is The World's Crisis and Second Advent Messenger, published in Boston. Their creed is given in the Declaration of Principles, approved by the general conference of 1900. They believe that through sin man forfeited immortality and that only through faith in Christ can any live forever; that death is a condition of unconsciousness for all persons until the resurrection at Christ's second coming, when the righteous will enter an endless life upon this earth, and the rest will suffer complete extinction of being; that this coming is near; that church government should be congregational; that immersion is the only true baptism; and that Sunday is the Christian Sabbath. Bibliography: I. C. Wellcome, History of the Second Advent Message, Yarmouth, Me., 1874. 4. Life and Advent Union: This may be said to have existed since 1848, but it was not until 1862 that it was organized, at Wilbraham. Mass., under the leadership of Elder George Stores. Its organ is The Herald of Life and of the Corning Kingdom, published at Springfield, Mass., weekly since 1862. It holds that all hope of another life is through Jesus Christ, and that only believers in him, who have manifested in their daily lives the fruits of the Spirit, attain to the resurrection of the dead, which will take place at Christ's coming, and that such coming will be personal, visible, and literal, and is impending. The Union holds four camp-meetings annually: two in Maine, one in Connecticut, which is the principal one, and one in Virginia. Bibliography: O. S. Halsted, The Theology of the Bible, Newark, 1860; Discussion between Miles Grant and J. T. Curry, Boston, 1863. 5. Church of God: This is a branch of the Seventh-day Adventists, which seceded in 1866 because its members denied that Mrs. Ellen Gould White was an inspired prophetess. Their organ is The Bible Advocate and Herald of the Coming Kingdom, published at Stanberry, Mo., which is their center. Like the parent body, the Church of God has tithes, sanatoriums, and a publishing house. Bibliography: A. F. Dugger, Points of Difference between the Church of God and Seventh-Day Adventists, Stanberry, Mo.; J. Brinkerhoff, Mrs. White's Visions. Comparison of the early Writings of Mrs. E. G. White with later Publications, showing the Suppressions made in them to deny their erroneous Teaching; D. Nield, The Good Friday Problem, showing from Scripture, Astronomy and History that the Crucifixion of Christ took Place on Wednesday, and his Resurrection on Saturday. 6. Churches of God in Christ Jesus, popularly known as the Age-to-come Adventists: These have existed since 1851, when their organ, The Restitution (Plymouth, Ind.), was established, but they were not organized till 1888, when the general conference was formed. They believe in the restoration of Israel, the literal resurrection of the dead, the immortalization of the righteous, and the final destruction of the wicked, eternal life being through Christ alone. Bibliography: J. P. Weethee, The Coming Age, Chicago, 1884. The statistics of the Adventists are thus given by H. K. Carroll in The Christian Advocate for Jan. 25, 1906: Name. Ministers. Churches. Communicants. Evangelical 34 30 1,147 Seventh-day 486 1,707 60,471 Advent Christians 912 610 26,500 Life and Advent Union 60 28 3,800 Church of God 19 29 647 Churches of God in Christ Jesus 54 95 2,872 _____ _____ _____ Total Adventists 1,565 2,499 95,437 Advertisements of Elizabeth ADVERTISEMENTS OF ELIZABETH: Name commonly applied to the regulations promulgated in 1566 by Matthew Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, for the purpose, as alleged, of securing uniformity and decency in public worship, against the tendencies of the extreme Protestant party (see [107]Puritans, Puritanism, § 6). It is now generally admitted that, though they represented Elizabeth's policy in ritual matters, they never received her formal sanction. They assumed some importance in the ritual controversies of the nineteenth century, the High-church party contending that they were merely an archiepiscopal injunction enforcing an irreducible minimum of ritual, while their opponents attempted to show that they were a legal prescription of a positive kind, which made the surplice the only lawful vestment of the clergy in parish churches. Bibliography: The text of the Advertisements is given in Gee and Hardy, Documents, pp. 467-475. Consult: J. Strype, Life and Acts of Matthew Parker, London, 1821; Church Quarterly Review, xvii. (1881) 54-60. Advocate of The Church ADVOCATE OF THE CHURCH (Lat. Advocatus or Defensor Ecclesiæ): An officer charged with the secular affairs of an ecclesiastical establishment, more especially its defense, legal or armed. The beginnings of the office appear in the Roman empire. From the end of the fifth century there were defensores in Italy, charged with the protection of the poor and orphans as well as with the care of Church rights and property. In the Merovingian kingdom legal representatives of the churches had the title. In the Carlovingian period, in accordance with the effort to keep the clergy as far as possible from worldly affairs, bishops, abbots, and other ecclesiastics were required to have such an official. The development of the law of immunity made such advocati necessary--on the one hand, to uphold Church rights against the State and in court, on the other hand to perform judicial and police duties in ecclesiastical territory. The Carlovingian kings had the right of appointment, but sometimes waived it in individual cases. These officers were at first generally clerics, later laymen, and finally the office became hereditary. Often this advocate of the Church developed into a tyrant, keeping the establishment in absolute submission, despoiling and plundering it. He usurped the whole power of administration, limited the authority of the bishop to purely spiritual affairs, absorbed the tithes and all other revenues, and doled out to the clergy a mean modicum only. Innocent III. (1198-1216), however, succeeded in checking the growing importance of this institution, and soon the office itself disappeared. Bibliography: R. Happ, De advocatia ecclesiastica, Bonn, 1870; H. Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte, ii. 302, Leipsic, 1892. Advocates, Consistorial ADVOCATES, CONSISTORIAL: Twelve lawyers who outrank all the advocates in the papal court. They trace their origin from the close of the sixth century, when Gregory the Great appointed seven defensores in the city of Rome to plead the cause of poor litigants who would otherwise be without legal counsel. Sixtus IV. increased the number by the addition of five junior advocates, but the memory of the historical origin of the body was preserved by reserving to the seven senior members certain privileges, among them the right to constitute the college proper of consistorial advocates. This college at the present time is made up of two clerics and five laymen, one of the latter being dean. The name "consistorial" comes from the fact that their principal duties--presenting the claims of candidates for canonization and petitioning for the pallium--are performed in papal consistories. John T. Creagh. Advocates of St. Peter ADVOCATES OF ST. PETER: An association of Roman Catholic jurists formed on the occasion of the episcopal jubilee of Pius IX. in 1876, for the purpose of asserting and vindicating the rights and teaching of the Church and of the Holy See. The organization, which was blessed by Pius IX., received a signal mark of approbation from Leo XIII. in 1878, when its constitution was approved in a papal brief. From Rome, where its headquarters were established, it has spread into all the countries of Europe, but is unknown in the United States. John T. Creagh. Advocatus Dei, Diaboli. ADVOCATUS DEI, DIABOLI. See [108]Canonization. Advowson ADVOWSON: In the Church of England, the right of nomination to a vacant ecclesiastical benefice, vested in the crown, the bishop, one of the universities, or a private person. Such nomination, or presentation, as it is called, is the rule in England, election by the congregation being almost unknown. Ædituus ÆDITUUS, î-dit´u-us: A term applied to a person having the care of ecclesiastical property. Among the Romans it described one who, with the local priest, if there was one, had charge of a temple. The Roman customs in regard to this office had their influence on the development of similar functions in the Christian Church. They were at first discharged by the [109]ostiarius, to whom the term ædituus was sometimes applied (cf. Paulinus of Nola, Epist., i.). By degrees, as the major and minor orders developed, and Church property became more valuable, permanent subordinate officials were required to look after it. The functions and designations of these officials varied, however, in different provinces. The name ædituus fell into disuse, probably from its original association with heathen worship. It was employed in the Vulgate version of Ezek. xliv. 11; Hos. x. 5; Zeph. i. 4; and Durand (Rationale, ii. 5) says of the ostiarii that their functions resemble those of the æditui. In the Middle Ages the execution of the less dignified functions, which were thought incompatible with the clerical office, was committed more and more to subordinates, and by the end of that period almost entirely to laymen. The name ædituus was still used for these officials, being thus equivalent to the later sacristan. But this was principally in central Europe, especially in Germany, where conciliar decrees show that their duty was to ring the bells, to open and close the church, etc. In the more western countries the æditui became rather identified with the [110]procuratores or [111]provisores who had charge of the ecclesiastical property, though this included in some degree the maintenance of the building and the provision of vestments, candles, incense, and the like. In America during the nineteenth century the name has been not infrequently employed in Roman Catholic ecclesiastical terminology for the trustees who administer the temporal concerns of a parish. (Johannes Ficker.) Aegidius ÆGIDIUS, î-jid´i-us, SAINT. See [112]Giles, Saint. Aegidius de Columna ÆGIDIUS DE COLUMNA (Egidio Colonna): A pupil of Thomas Aquinas and reputed author of the bull Unam sanctam; b. at Rome 1245 (?); d. at Avignon 1316. He joined the Augustinian eremite monks, studied at Paris, and taught there for many years, being called Doctor fundatissimus. From 1292 to 1295 he was general of his order. In 1296 he was made archbishop of Bourges, but continued to reside in Rome. He defended the election of Boniface VIII. in his De renuntiatione papæ, showing that the abdication of Celestine V. was not against the canon law, and followed the court to Avignon. His numerous writings (mostly unpublished) deal with philosophy (commentaries on Aristotle), exegesis (In Canticum Canticorum; In epistolam ad Romanos), and dogmatics (In sententias Longobardi; Quodlibeta). A portion of his work on ecclesiastical polity, De potestate ecclesiastica, was published in the Journal de l'instruction publique (Paris, 1858). K. Benrath. Bibliography: C. E. du Boulay, Historia universitatis Parisiensis, iii. 671-672, Paris, 1666; W. Cave, Scriptorum ecclesiasticorum litteraria, ii. 339-341, Oxford, 1743; J. A. Fabricius, Bibliotheca Latina, i. 19-20, Florence, 1858; F. X. Kraus, Ægidius von Rom, in Oesterreichische Vierteljahresschrift für katholische Theologie, i. 1-33, Vienna, 1862; F. L[ajard], Gilles de Rome, religieux, Augustin, theologian, in Histoire litteraire de la France, xxx. 421-566, Paris, 1888. Aegidius of Viterbo ÆGIDIUS OF VITERBO: General and protector of the order of Augustinian eremite monks to which Luther belonged; d. as cardinal at Rome 1532. Of his many theological writings (for list cf. Fabricius, Bibliotheca Latina, i., Florence, 1858, p. 23) but few have been published. His address at the opening of the Lateran council of 1512 may be found in Hardouin (Conciliorum collectio, vol. ix., Paris, 1715, p. 1576), and a memorial on the condition of the Church, which he presented to Pope Adrian VI., was published by C. Höfler (in the Abhandlungen of the Royal Bavarian Academy, hist. cl., iv., Munich, 1846, pp. 62-89). K. Benrath. Bibliography: T. Kolde, Die deutsche Augustiner-Congregation, Gotha, 1879. Aelfred, Aelfric. ÆLFRED, ÆLFRIC. See [113]Alfred, Alfric. Aeneas of Gaza ÆNEAS, î-nî´?s, OF GAZA, gê´z?: A pupil of the Neoplatonist Hierocles at Alexandria, and teacher of rhetoric at Gaza. Before 534 he wrote a dialogue, Theophrastus (in MPG, lxxxv. 865--1004), in which he opposes the doctrine of the preexistence of the soul, but asserts its immortality and the resurrection of the body; the perpetuity of the world is rejected. Twenty-five of his letters may be found in R. Hercher, Epistolographi Græci, pp. 24-32, Paris, 1873, and several of his treatises are in M. de la Bigne, Bibliotheca veterum patrum, viii. (8 vols., Paris, 1609-10); Magna bibliotheca, v. 3 and xii. (15 vols., Paris, 1618-22); and Maxima bibliotheca veterum patrum, viii. (28 vols., Lyons, 1677-1707). G. Krüger. Bibliography: G. Wernsdorf, Disputatio de Ænea Gazæo, Naumburg, 1816; K. Seitz, Die Schule von Gaza, pp. 23-27, Heidelberg, 1892; K. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur, p. 432, Munich, 1897; G. Schalkhauser, Æneas von Gaza als Philosoph, Erlangen, 1898. Aeneas of Paris ÆNEAS OF PARIS: Bishop of Paris 858-870; d. Dec. 27, 870. He is best known as the author of one of the controversial treatises against the Greeks called forth by the encyclical letters of Photius. His comprehensive Liber adversus Græcos (in D'Achery, Spicilegum, Paris, i., 1723, 113-148; MPL, cxxi. 681-762; cf. MGH, Epist., vi., 1902, p. 171, no. 22) deals with the procession of the Holy Ghost, the marriage of the clergy, fasting, the consignatio infantium, the clerical tonsure, the Roman primacy, and the elevation of deacons to the see of Rome. He declares that the accusations brought by the Greeks against the Latins are "superfluous questions having more relation to secular matters than to spiritual." [The work is mainly a collection of quotations or "sentences," from Greek and Latin Fathers, the former translated.] (A. Hauck.) Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini ÆNEAS SYLVIUS PICCOLOMINI. See [114]Pius II., Pope. Aepinus, Johannes ÆPINUS, ê-pî´nus, JOHANNES (Johann Hoeck): The first Lutheran superintendent of Hamburg; b. at Ziesar or Ziegesar (29 m. e.n.e. of Magdeburg), in the march of Brandenburg, 1499; d. in Hamburg May 13, 1553. He was a diligent student as a boy, and was under Bugenhagen's instruction, probably while the latter was rector of the monastery of Belbuck. He took his bachelor's degree at Wittenberg in 1520; here he became the friend of Luther and Melanchthon. Then he had a school in Brandenburg, but was persecuted and imprisoned for his reforming activity, and had to leave home. Partly on account of the malice of his enemies, he adopted the modified form of the Greek word aipeinos ("lofty"), by which he is generally known, and which he claimed was a translation of his real name (Hoeck = hoch). He spent some time in Pomerania, in close relations with the leaders of the Reformation there. From about 1524 to 1528 he was in Stralsund, in charge of a school (probably private). The local authorities asked him to draw up an order of ecclesiastical discipline (Kirchenordnung), which went into effect Nov. 5, 1525. In Oct., 1529, he succeeded Johann Boldewan as pastor of St. Peter's in Hamburg. He carried on vigorously the work of his teacher and friend, Bugenhagen, and was chiefly instrumental in introducing his order of discipline in Hamburg. His contest with the cathedral chapter, which still adhered to the old faith, gave occasion to the earliest of his extant writings, Pinacidion de Romanæ ecclesiæ imposturis (1530). On May 18, 1532 he was appointed to the highest office in the Lutheran Church of Hamburg, that of superintendent according to Bugenhagen's order of discipline. In 1534 he visited England at the request of Henry VIII., to advise him as to his divorce and as to the carrying forward of the Reformation there. He returned to Hamburg in the following January, and subsequently made numerous journeys as a representative of the city in important affairs. He took part in all the church movements of the time, and frequently had the deciding voice in disputed matters. Melanchthon considered his work on the interim (1548) the best that had been written, though it did not agree with his own views. In all his writings Æpinus displays great theological learning and equal gentleness of temper. He gave weekly theological lectures, usually in Latin, which were attended by the preachers and other learned men, and spent much time on the Psalms, taking up especially the questions which at the moment were agitating men's minds. He is best known by the controversy which arose over his teaching as to the descent of Christ into Hades. In 1542, finding that the article of the creed on this subject was frequently explained as meaning no more than the going down into the grave, in his lecture on the sixteenth psalm, he put forward the view, already given in Luther's explanation of the Psalms, that Christ had really gone down into hell, to deliver men from its power. Garcæus, his successor at St. Peter's, called him to account for this teaching, but left Hamburg in the following year and did not return until 1546. Meantime Æpinus's commentary on Ps. xvi. had been published by his assistant Johann Freder, so that his view was widely known. The controversy became a public and a bitter one after Garcæus's return, and both sides sought to gain support from Wittenberg. Melanchthon could only say that there was no agreement among the doctors on this point, and counsel peace. Æpinus's opponents in Hamburg were so turbulent that their leaders were deprived of their offices and banished from the city in 1551. The principal monument of Æpinus's activity in Hamburg is his ordinances for the church there, which he drew up in 1539 at the request of the council. It was a necessary amplification of that of Bugenhagen, and seems to have remained in force until 1603. (Carl Bertheau.) Bibliography: N. Staphorst, Hamburgische Kirchengeschichte, II. i., Hamburg, 1729; A. Greve, Memoria J. Æpini instaurata, ib. 1736; N. Wilckens, Hamburgischer Ehrentempel, pp. 248-280, ib. 1770; F. H. R. Frank, Theologie der Konkordienformel, 4 vols., Erlangen, 1858-65; Schaff, Creeds, i. 296-298. Aerius AERIUS, ??-ê´ri-us: Presbyter and director of the asylum for strangers, maimed, and incapable, in Sebaste in Pontus in the fourth century. He was one of the progressive men of the time who protested against the legalistic and hierarchic tendencies of the Church. Supporting his contention by the Scriptures, he objected to the inequality of presbyters and bishops, denied the value of prayers for the dead, and opposed strict ordinances concerning fasting, which he wished to leave more to individual judgment. About 360 he resigned his position. He had many followers, who constituted a party of "Aerians"; they were severely persecuted and soon disappeared. The only source is Epiphanius (Hær., lxxv.; cf. Gieseler, Church History, i., section 106, note 3), who treats him in a very partizan spirit. Philipp Meyer. Bibliography: J. Glas, Monograph on the Heresy of Aerius, Perth, 1745; C. W. F. Walch, Historie der Ketzereien, iii. 321 sqq., Leipsic, 1766. Aetius AETIUS. See [115]Arianism, I., 3, § 6. Affre, Denis Auguste AFFRE, DENIS AUGUSTE: Archbishop of Paris; b. at St. Rome de Tarn (55 m. n.w. of Montpellier), Aveyron, France, Sept. 27, 1793; d. at Paris June 27, 1848. He studied at the Seminary of St. Sulpice and taught theology there after having been ordained priest (1818); he became vicar-general of the diocese of Luçon 1821, of Amiens 1823, of Paris 1834, archbishop of Paris 1840. As archbishop he was zealous and faithful, and lost his life in the performance of duty. During the revolution of 1848, hoping to induce the insurgents to lay down their arms, he mounted a barricade at the Faubourg St. Antoine and attempted to address the mob, but had hardly begun to speak when he was struck by a musket ball and mortally wounded. He was one of the founders of La France chrétienne (1820), wrote much for it and other periodicals, and published several treatises of value on educational, historical, and religious subjects. Bibliography: P. M. Cruice, Vie de D. A. Affre, Paris, 1849 (abridged, 1850); E. Castan, Histoire de la vie et de la mort de Mgr. D. A. Affre, ib. 1855. Afra, Saint AFRA, SAINT: An early female martyr, concerning whom all that can be confidently asserted is that she suffered at Augsburg. This fact is attested by Venantius Fortunatus (Vita Martini, iv. 642-643) and the mention of her name in the older martyrologies, and there is no reason to question it since the importance of Augsburg makes the early introduction of Christianity there probable. Her Acta (ed. B. Krusch, MGH, Script., Rer. Merov., iii., 1896, 41-64) consist of two independent parts, Conversio and Passio, of which the latter is the older. It is said that she was dedicated by her mother to the service of Venus and lived an immoral life in Augsburg until she was converted by a bishop and deacon, who, in time of persecution, took refuge in her house, not knowing her character. She boldly confessed her faith in a general onslaught on the Christians and died by fire Aug. 5. Bibliography: Rettberg, KD, i. 144-149; Friedrich, KD, i. 186-199, 427-430, ii. 653-654; L. Duchesne, Ste. Afra d'Augsbourg, in Bulletin critique, ii. (1897) 301-305. Africa AFRICA. I. The Continent as a Whole. 1. Geographical Description. 2. The Races of Africa. 3. The Opening of Africa. The Arabs and Portuguese (§ 1). The General European Invasion (§ 2). The Prohibition of the Slave-Trade (§ 3). Later Explorations and the Partition of Africa (§ 4). 4. Religion and Missions. Native Religions (§ 1). Mohammedanism (§ 2). Protestant Missions (§ 3). Colonists and Missions (§ 4). The "Ethiopian Movement" (§ 5). II. The Political Divisions of Africa III. African Islands. I. The Continent as a Whole: 1. Geographical Description: Africa extends southward from the Mediterranean Sea nearly 5,000 miles. The equator crosses it nearly in the middle of its length; but by far the greater part of its mass lies north of the equator, the breadth of the continent from Cape Verde to Cape Guardafui being about 4,600 miles. Its area is about 11,500,000 sq. miles; and the adjacent islands add to this 239,000 more. Easily accessible to Europe by the Mediterranean Sea through 2,000 miles of its northern coast, and touching Asia at the Isthmus of Suez, this continent has ever invited investigation, and has received notable influences from both of its active neighbors. The Sahara Desert, however, severing the Mediterranean coast regions from the southern and equatorial regions of the continent, has proved for centuries a bar to extended intercourse. "Had it not been for the River Nile," says Sir H. H. Johnston, "the negro and the Caucasian might have existed apart even longer without coming into contact." In fact, the great rivers of Africa are quite as important as aide to foreign intercourse in these days as the Desert has been an obstruction to it in the past. The greatest of the African rivers are the Nile, the Kongo, the Niger, and the Zambesi. Closely connected with the rivers, again, are the great lakes of central Africa, namely, Victoria, Tanganyika, and Nyassa, which belong, respectively, to the Nile, the Kongo, and the Zambesi systems. A further characteristic of the continent, noteworthy for all who seek entrance to its interior districts, is the insalubrity, one might say the deadliness, of the climate of its coasts both east and west throughout its tropical zone. The low-lying coast regions, extending in some cases 200 miles inland are sown with the graves of white men, germs of strange and fatal fevers lying in wait as it were for all strangers who venture to set foot unprepared upon that black and seething soil. The greatest mountains of Africa are all in its east central section. Kilimanjaro in German East Africa, east of the Victoria Nyanza, is 19,600 feet high; Mweru, close by, is about 16,000 feet; and Ruwenzori, west of the Victoria Nyanza and on the border of the Kongo Independent State, is over 20,000 feet. Among the high lands of the interior the most notable section is a broad causeway of elevated plateaux which stretches from Abyssinia southward almost to Cape Colony, and which offers to the white man an almost ideal residence at a height of from 5,000 to 6,000 feet through a long range that is hardly broken save by the Zambesi River. 2. The Races of Africa: The puzzle of the races in Africa which the casual visitor classes under the comprehensive term negroes is insoluble at this day. But the key to the puzzle may probably be found in the repeated mingling of Asiatic and European blood in varying degrees and at divers distinct epochs with the blood of the African of the projecting jaw and the woolly locks. The history of Africa is practically the history of Egypt and then of her Carthaginian rival until well toward the Christian era. Only then did the Mediterranean coast of North Africa begin to have a tale of its own. The mention of this is significant; it suggests the repeated entrance of Asiatica into Africa through the whole period when Egypt was a world power, and of various sorts of Europeans into North Africa during a thousand years before the Mohammedan era. The races now inhabiting Africa are a perpetual subject of discussion and theory because of the difficulty of accounting for the resemblances as well as the differences between them. Along the Mediterranean coast of North Africa the Arab race rules; but in all the countries of this coast from the west frontier of Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean the Berber race forms the larger part of the population, and even extends into the Sahara. A little further south, negroes of a low and degraded type are found on the west of the Nile; and they appear at different points throughout the continent as far west as the Atlantic coast. In Egypt the larger part of the population is a mixture of Arabs with the ancient Egyptian race, commonly classed as Hamites. This name distinguishes this people from the Semitic races, without throwing light on their origin. Arabs appear also at intervals along the coast of East Africa as far south as Portuguese East Africa in considerable numbers. In the northern section of this coast, along with the Arabs is found a race of negroes commonly called Nubians, the result apparently of mixtures of Arab, Egyptian, and negro races. Abyssinia, the Somali coast, and the Galla country contain a large block of people of the Hamite race, divided into groups, however, by language as well as by religion. Along the Upper Nile as far as the borders of Uganda and eastward well toward the coast are found tribes of another type of negroes generally called the Nilotic group. The negroes of the western part of Africa north of the equator are not all of the degraded type that appears along the western coast. The Fulahs are of an entirely different race, resembling the Hamites, excepting in language. The Mandingoes of the interior of Sierra Leone, Liberia, and the Ivory Coast, are also of a higher type, although their languages show no traces of northern or Asiatic influence. Throughout Africa north of the equator small detached bodies of Arabs are found at different points; and in general the religious control of this whole great region is with the Mohammedans. For this reason north Africa is frequently spoken of as "Mohammedan Africa." It should be borne in mind, nevertheless, that throughout the region, many pagan tribes exist under Mohammedan rulers. South of the equator, generally speaking, the inhabitants of central Africa, and indeed to the borders of Cape Colony, are of the Bantu stock, often warlike and of a much higher type of intelligence than the negroes of the western coast. In the southwestern part of the continent are remnants of the Hottentots and Bushmen, once numerous in Cape Colony, while throughout Cape Colony proper the natives are known as "colored people," and represent a residue of mixtures of races during centuries. A considerable number of Dutch and of British are found in South Africa; and Portuguese, as well as many Portuguese half-breeds, are numerous in Angola and Portuguese East Africa. European colonists are slowly entering the country on all sides and from all nations, but more than half of the continent can never be a fit residence for Europeans and must remain in the hands of the negro races. This mixture of races stands in the place of a historical record concerning the people of Africa. Neither the Africans nor any others can read the record. It is the misfortune of the people of this continent to have no history except as appendages to the outside world; and the whole mass of allusions to them in ancient history has the vague quality of tradition. Even the Roman records lack precision, and remain generalities which throw little light on the history of the actual people of the continent. 3. The Opening of Africa: 1. The Arabs and Portuguese. The Mohammedan conquest, beginning about 640, added little to knowledge of the continent, although the Arabs in time gave to the rest of the world information about the fertile negro land beyond the desert in the unlimited region to which they gave the name Sudan, "the Country of the Blacks." Eight hundred years later the Portuguese undertook a wonderful series of explorations of the African coasts, which between 1446 and 1510 began the process of stamping the continent as a possession of Europe. Portugal named every important feature of the African coast as though she owned the whole continent, which in fact she did as far as the coasts were concerned. She ruled the west coast and the Cape of Good Hope from Lisbon, and the east coast, as a part of India, from Goa; and there were none but the Arabs to dispute her sway. She introduced missions also into her African possessions. But, after the fashion of the times, a mission had no objections to raise against maltreatment of the people to whom the land belonged. 2. The General European Invasion. At last in the seventeenth century began what may be called the third period of the opening of Africa, the Arab invasion and the Portuguese occupation having been the first and second. The characteristic of this third period was a rush by every European nation that could handle ships to make the most money possible out of a vast territory whose inhabitants had not the ability to object. The Dutch took the Cape of Good Hope; and the British, the French, and the Spaniards all gained foothold in different parts of the western coast, and imprinted the nature of their enterprises upon the region by names which persist to this day; such as the "Gold Coast," the "Ivory Coast," the "Grain [of Paradise] Coast" and the "Slave Coast." When the slave-trade began, in the seventeenth century, the Germans, the Swedes, and the Danes also made haste to acquire territory whence they could despoil the continent. North Africa, however, remained in the fierce grip of Islam. The history of Africa was still a history of outsiders working their will upon the country. At the end of the eighteenth century the nations of the lesser European powers had all been dispossessed. Portugal held to her ancient acquisitions about the mouths of the Kongo and the Zambesi and began to try to discover what lay back of these; Great Britain had replaced the Dutch at the Cape of Good Hope, thus securing an extensive region in which white men could live and thrive; while France and Spain had some small settlements on the northern part of the west coast of the continent. The slave-trade, during nearly 200 years as far as Europe is concerned, and during uncounted centuries as concerns the Asiatic countries, sums up history for the African people. They know little else of their past; but they know that. That fearful traffic transported Africa westward, until from the Ohio River in the United States away southward to the valley of the Amazon in Brazil and throughout the West Indies, the population became strongly and often predominantly African. 3. Prohibition of the Slave-Trade. A fourth era begins for Africa with the prohibition of the slave-trade by Denmark, Great Britain, Holland, France, and Sweden (1792-1819). It was the slave-trade and its horrors which turned Protestant missionary activity toward Africa in the earliest days of the nineteenth century; and it was the discussion which preceded the prohibition of slave-trading which suggested the beginning of a systematic exploration of Africa. 4. Later Explorations and the Partition of Africa. A fifth period of African history is that of effective exploration of the interior by Europeans between 1840 and 1875. In this period the missionary Livingstone preceded Stanley. But Stanley, following Burton and Speke and Grant and Cameron, and seeking to find Livingstone, turned the attention of the world to the vast commercial value of Africa. A sixth period is the period of partition, beginning when Great Britain, after taking possession of many of the best territories in the southern part of the continent, occupied Egypt in 1882. In the eager rush of the European powers which followed, the great continent, has been parceled out as a gold-field is parceled out by prospectors who protect by men with guns the stakes they have hastily driven into the soil, and who only then sit down to estimate the value of what they have secured in the scramble. So to the present day the history of Africa is a history of what outsiders have done in the continent rather than of what the people of the country have done or thought or planned. 4. Religion and Missions: 1. Native Religions. A rapid survey of the modern political divisions of Africa will be given under the name of each. It seems well, however, to make here a few general remarks upon some religious and social peculiarities of the people of the continent as a whole. The religion of Africa in its untouched and natural condition is not properly idolatrous. There is almost always some sense of a supreme being, who is a spirit, and from whom all power has originally proceeded. The actual religious observances of the people, however, except where they have been affected by Mohammedanism or by Christianity, are forms of spirit-worship connected with the use of fetishes (see [116]Fetishism). 2. Mohammedanism. Mohammedanism has become an indigenous religion in Africa. It rules absolutely the religious thought of nine-tenths of the people of the northern parts of the continent, and controls in a less degree millions south of the Sahara from the Nile to the Niger. As a civilizing force Mohammedanism has value. The first thing the awakened negro does under Mohammedan influence is to obtain a decent robe wherewith to cover himself. Islam wherever it goes ends cannibalism. Its scheme of religious motive in life is to commend religion by making it "easy" to those who find restraint hard. It teaches a certain proportion of the people to recite Arabic litanies of praise to God, and to read Arabic; but to the great mass of the negroes its effect includes neither knowledge of Arabic nor information on the dogmas of Islam. It encourages war in a positive and very real sense; its slave-raids know no amelioration through the change from the tenth to the twentieth century; and they are barely less brutalizing than the man-eating raids which they have displaced. The weakness of Mohammedanism as a civilizing force is that it can not raise men to a level higher than the old Arabian civilization which it is proud to represent. And it is a fact of the deepest meaning, from the missionary point of view, that negroes who have become Mohammedans are equipped with an assurance of righteousness and knowledge which makes them almost impervious to Christian instruction. 3. Protestant Missions. The Protestant missions, on the other hand, bring to their converts the Christian civilization of the twentieth century with its blessings and enlightenment. The belief that the commonest man will be elevated by study of the Bible, makes the literary culture of African languages a first principle in every mission. More than 100 of the tribal dialects have been reduced to writing, and have been given an elementary Biblical study apparatus which improves as the capacity of the people develops. In the process the language itself becomes in some degree purified, and its words enriched by more profound meanings, until the language receives power to express feelings. In South Africa hundreds of native Protestant churches lead independent ecclesiastical lives under native pastors. It is perhaps too soon to claim that anything is proved by the moderate successes of a century of Protestant missions; but at least it is not out of place to emphasize the wide difference of aim between the two great branches of the Christian Church now working for the regeneration of the tribes of Africa. 4. Colonists and Missions. African missions encounter difficulty from the European colonists. Their aim is quite different from that of the colonists. This alone would make friction and mutual opposition probable. But the aim of the colonist is sometimes aggressively opposed to that of the missionary. That aim was frankly stated by the German Koloniale Zeitschrift early in 1904 as follows: "We have acquired this colony not for the evangelization of the blacks, not primarily for their well-being, but for us whites. Whoever hinders our object must be put out of the way." Such assumption of the right of might is found not only in German Southwest Africa; but in the Portuguese colonies, where the slave trade is still brutally active; in some of the French colonies, where the cruelties of the local administration broke De Brazza's heart; and in the Kongo Independent State, where mutilations and other cruelties mark the Belgian rubber trade and are glossed over by the assurance that the cutting off of hands is an old native custom. The same spirit often appears in British colonies in Africa, but there it is repressed by the government. Where the colonist acts on the "might is right" principle the missionary works a stony soil. 5. The "Ethiopian Movement." The colonist has had occasion from the very beginning of missions in Africa to complain that one effect of them is to make the people self-assertive. This is not a fault, provided the self-assertion does not pass the limits of mutual right. During the last five or six years a movement among the native Christians of South Africa has attracted much attention. It is what is known as the "Ethiopian movement." Its watchword is "Africa for the Africans"; and its aim is to place all African churches under strictly African leadership. There is a political sound in some of the utterances of the "Ethiopian" leaders; and the local governments are on the alert to check any developments along that line, more especially since American Africans have taken a hand in the movement. There appears to be some connection between this movement and the revolt of the tribes in the south of German Southwest Africa. Whatever the final outcome, it appears certain that as the African tribes learn to think for themselves they must assert their manhood; and, however foolish and futile some of the manifestations of this growing manhood may be, the fact itself is a token that ought to be welcomed. Through it Africa may yet have a history of its own. II. The Political Divisions of Africa: Abyssinia: The only Christian country of Africa which resisted the Mohammedan irruption. It consists for the most part of a mountain knot in which rise the Atbara River and the Blue Nile, and lies between the Egyptian Sudan and the Red Sea. Area about 150,000 sq. miles; population about 3,500,000; religion, a debased form of the Coptic Church with over 3,000,000 adherents. There are also between 60,000 and 100,000 Jews (called Falashas, "exiles"), and about 50,000 Mohammedans, besides 300,000 pagans. The prevailing language is the Amharic with dialects in different sections. The sacred books of the church are in Ethiopic or Geez. The Gallas in the south have a language of their own. In 1490 Portuguese explorers introduced the Roman Catholic religion into Abyssinia. In 1604 a Jesuit mission was established which finally won the adhesion of the emperor. Intrigues led to their expulsion after about thirty years. The Carmelites and Augustinians also engaged in the work, but with no lasting results; the mission was entirely abandoned in 1797. All attempts to reestablish Roman Catholic missions were thwarted until the early part of the nineteenth century. The Lazarists succeeded about 1830 in gaining a foothold in various provinces. They were again expelled from the interior provinces, and now have their headquarters in the Italian territory of Eritrea (see below). A strong missionary advance into Harrar is also being made from Jibuti. The earliest effort to establish a Protestant mission in Abyssinia was that of Peter Heyling, a law student of Lübeck. He went there in 1640, won favor with the Abyssinian court circles, and began to translate the Bible into colloquial Amharic. He was captured by Turks in 1652, and, refusing to become a Mohammedan, was decapitated, leaving no trace of his work. In 1752 Christian Frederick William Hocker, a Moravian physician, began a persistent effort to establish a mission in Abyssinia. But the mission got no further than Egypt, and was recalled after the death of Hocker in 1782. In 1830 the Church Missionary Society established a mission in Abyssinia, which was broken up in 1838. Later the London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews sent missionaries to the Falashas. Suspicions of political designs hampered the missionaries; and in 1863 they were imprisoned by the emperor. A British military expedition stormed Magdala, the capital, in 1868 and freed the captives; but the mission was not again undertaken. In 1866 the Swedish National Missionary Society began a mission in the border of the province of Tigre, near Massowah. For fifteen years the mission made little progress, suffering through the hostility of the people and through attacks of disease. Then the earliest converts were baptized, the first a Galla slave, and next a Mohammedan. In 1904 the society had ten stations in Eritrea (see below) and had succeeded in sending, with the consent of the authorities, native preachers into the southern Galla country west of Gojam. The Bible has a limited circulation in Abyssinia in several versions. The old Ethiopic Church version has been revised, and printed by the British Bible Society. The whole Bible has been translated into Amharic (1824), and into the southern Galla dialect (1898). The New Testament has been rendered (1830) into the Tigré dialect of the Geez, and single Gospels into Falasha, into two Galla dialects, and into Bogos. See [117]Abyssinia and the Abyssinian Church. Algeria: A French possession in northern Africa extending southward from the Mediterranean a somewhat uncertain distance into the Desert of Sahara. Area about 184,474 sq. miles; population about 4,739,000. The Algerian Sahara has about 198,000 sq. miles in addition, with a population estimated at 62,000. Although Algeria is regarded as a part of France, it still remains a Mohammedan country. The Mohammedan population is rather vaguely estimated at about 4,100,000, considerable uncertainty existing as to the number of inhabitants of the military district in the hinterland. The Christian population of Algeria is chiefly Roman Catholic (527,000). There are also about 25,000 Greeks, Armenians, and Copts, and about 30,000 Protestants. The number of Jews is 57,000. The language of the country outside of the European colonies is Arabic with several dialects of the Berber language known here as Kabyle (i.e. "tribesman"). Algeria forms an archdiocese of the Roman Catholic Church, and is the seat of the Algerian Missionary Society organized through the energetic efforts of [118]Cardinal Lavigerie, for missionary enterprises on the edge of the Sahara and in Senegambia and other African districts as far south as Lake Tanganyika. Protestant missionary enterprises are represented in Algeria by the following: two French societies working among the Jews; Miss Trotter's educational mission; the Plymouth Brethren, who have ten missionaries in different cities in Algeria, but publish no statistics; a small Swedish mission; and the North Africa mission, which occupies four stations and carries on a number of small schools for Mohammedans. None of these missions has a very large following among the natives. In fact missionaries are not allowed by the French authorities to engage in open evangelization among Mohammedans. The Arabic version of the Bible has a limited circulation in Algeria. A colloquial version of some of the Gospels has been prepared for the use of the common people who have difficulty in understanding the classical Arabic. Some parts of the Bible have been translated into the Kabyle dialect; and this version, too, has a steady though small circulation. A painful historical interest attaches to the town of Bugia in Algeria as the scene of the martyrdom in 1315 of [119]Raymond Lully, the missionary to the Mohammedans. Angola: A colony of Portugal in West Africa, with a coast-line extending from the mouth of the Kongo River to the borders of German Southwest Africa. It extends into the interior to the Kongo Independent State. Area 484,000 sq. miles; population about 4,000,000, of whom 1,000,000 are rated as Roman Catholics. The Portuguese carried Roman Catholic missions to Angola in the last quarter of the fifteenth century, and a century later established a full ecclesiastical hierarchy in the old kingdom of Kongo, which lay on the left bank of the Kongo. Large numbers of the people of the old kingdom were converted to Christianity, even the king of the Kongo tribes being baptized in 1490. The residence of the king was at the place now known as San Salvador, in the northern part of Angola. This was the seat of the first Roman Catholic bishops. The residence of the bishop was afterward removed to St. Paul de Loanda on the coast, and the buildings at San Salvador fell into ruin as well as the human edifice of the Church in that region. During a hundred years or more the Church gave its blessing to the slave-trade, even the missionaries engaging in it and the bishop encouraging it. This confusion of missionary and mercantile enterprises perhaps accounts for the little progress made by early Christianity in Angola. The present Roman Catholic missionary force is in connection with the Congregation of the Holy Ghost and Sacred Heart of Mary, the mission being connected with the ecclesiastical province of Lisbon (Ulysippo). Protestant missions in Angola were commenced in 1879 by the Baptist Missionary Society of England, which occupied San Salvador and the northern part of the Loanda district as a part of its Kongo mission. The American Board opened a mission partly supported by Canadian Congregationalists, in the Benguela district in 1880. In 1882 the Livingstone Inland Mission (English) established a station, in connection with its Kongo mission, in Portuguese territory at Mukimvika on the left bank of the Kongo. This mission was turned over to the American Baptist Missionary Union two years later. In 1886 [120]Bishop William Taylor opened seven missionary stations in the district of Loanda, which are now carried on by the American Methodist Episcopal Church. The Plymouth Brethren also have a mission in Angola, and the Swiss Phil-African Mission under Heli Chatelain has a single station in Benguela, called Lincoln. All of these missions make use of education, industrial training, and medical aid to the suffering as instruments for evangelizing and elevating the people. Together these various Protestant missions report (1904) 65 missionaries (men and women), 142 native workers, 50 schools of all classes, 4,235 pupils, with about 4,000 reputed Christians. These Protestant missions have the commendation of the higher and the secret execration of the lower Portuguese officials; they are also hampered by the open hostility of the Portuguese traders and colonists; but they are encouraged by the growing desire of the natives to learn to read and to be men. The native tribes of the interior are numerous, and often separated by barriers of language, although chiefly of Bantu stock. Parts of the Bible have been translated into the Kimbundu, and the Umbundu dialects, and printed respectively at the presses of the Methodist Episcopal and the American Board missions. Basutoland: A native protectorate in South Africa, governed by native chiefs under a British commissioner. It lies north of Cape Colony, with the Orange River Colony and Natal forming its other boundaries. Area 10,293 sq. miles; population (1904) 348,500, of whom 900 are whites. No white colonists are admitted to this territory. The Basutos belong to the Bantu race; and their language is closely allied to the Zulu-Kafir language. About 300,000 of the people are pagans; about 40,000 are Protestant Christians; and about 5,000 are Roman Catholics. The capital of the territory is Maseru, where the British commissioner resides. The Protestant missions in Basutoland are maintained by the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society, which entered the country under Rolland and Semue in 1833, and by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, which began its work in 1875. These two societies have about twenty-eight principal stations and more than 200 outstations with schools, seminaries, printing establishments, etc. The Roman Catholic missions are erected into a prefecture apostolic. They have 6,000 converts. The missions are carried on by Oblates of Mary the Immaculate. Statistics are difficult to obtain, since the reports do not separate work in Basutoland from that of the Orange River Colony and Griqualand. The Bible has been translated by Casalis and Mabille of the Paris mission into the language of the Basutos, generally spoken of as Suto or Leesuto (1837). There is also quite a Christian literature in the same language. Bechuanaland Protectorate: A British protectorate in South Africa; lying between the Molopo River and the Zambesi, with German Southwest Africa on the west, and Transvaal and Rhodesia on the east. Area 275,000 sq. miles much of it being desert; population (1904) 119,772, besides 1,000 whites. It is governed by native chiefs, Khama, Sebele, and Bathoen, each ruling his own tribe. The British commissioner, who supervises all, lives at Mafeking. The country is traversed by the railway leading from Cape Town northward. Among the regulations is one which forbids the granting of licenses to sell liquor. Somewhat over 100,000 of the people are pagans, and about 15,000 are Christians. The Bible has been translated into the language of the chief tribes, which is called Chuan or Sechuan (1831) and single Gospels into Matabele and Mashona. Roman Catholic missions in this territory are under the charge of the Jesuits connected with the Zambesi mission. Statistics are very difficult to obtain, but the Roman Catholic Church seems to have about 3,000 adherents. Protestant missions are carried on by the London Missionary Society, which extended its work to this territory in 1862, and by the Hermannsburg Missionary Society of Germany, which entered the territory in 1864. It is difficult to obtain the exact statistics of either of these societies, since the mission reports of both cover land beyond the borders of the Bechuanaland Protectorate. It is estimated, however, that the number of their adherents is not far from 12,000. British East Africa Protectorate: A territory under British control in the eastern part of Africa, including coast lands ten miles wide nominally belonging to Zanzibar. The protectorate extends inland to the borders of Uganda. Area about 200,000 sq. miles. While the coast regions are on the whole not healthful, there is a broad belt of highland 300 miles back from the coast which is most suitable for European habitation; and it was upon this belt of highland that the British government invited the Hebrew Zionists to establish a colony. A railway has been constructed from Mombasa to Kisumu on the Victoria Nyanza. The population is estimated at 4,000,000, of whom 500 are Europeans and about 25,000 Hindus, Chinese, Goanese, and other Asiatics. Many Arabs are found in the coast districts, especially in the northern part of the territory; and with them are the mixed race called by the Arabs Suahili ("coast people"). Inland the larger part of the population is of the Bantu race; but there are some powerful tribes like the Masai and Nandi who are of Nilotic stock. In the northern part of the country Gallas and Somalis are found. The capital, Mombasa, has had a checkered history. It was founded by the Arabs, who were in possession when the Portuguese arrived in 1498. The Portuguese continued in power with various vicissitudes until their colony was destroyed 200 years later by the Arabs. The actual British acquisition of this territory dates from 1886 to 1890. Roman Catholic missions were established on this coast by the Portuguese in the fifteenth century, the stations being treated as an outlying district of the ecclesiastical province of Goa on the west coast of India. The missions followed the fortunes of the Portuguese occupation. They were reestablished in 1860 at Zanzibar. Protestant missions began with the arrival of Johann Ludwig Krapf, of the Church Missionary Society, in 1844. They were followed by the United Methodist Free Church in 1861, the Leipsic Missionary Society in 1886, the Neukirchen Missionary Institute in 1887, the Scandinavian Alliance Mission of North America in 1892, and the African Inland Mission, an American enterprise, in 1895. The Church of Scotland Foreign Missions Committee is preparing to enter the country also. All of these societies together report 172 missionaries, 92 stations and outstations with schools and hospitals, and about 11,000 adherents. The languages of the tribes of this territory differ greatly from each other; and several versions of the Bible will have to be prepared for them. A beginning has been made in translating the Gospels into the Suahili, Nandi, Masai, Somali, and Galla languages. The islands of Zanzibar and Pemba, lying off the coast of German East Africa, politically belong to this territory. Area of the two islands 1,020 sq. miles; population 200,000, including 10,000 East Indians and about 200 Europeans. Zanzibar has played an important part in the history of East and Central Africa since the beginning of the seventeenth century, when the region was occupied by Arabs of Muscat. It became a great center of African trade, including the slave-trade. The domains of the Sultan of Zanzibar extended along the whole coast from Mozambique nearly to the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. Since the beginning of the nineteenth century the influence of Great Britain has been gradually increasing, and so leading up to the present protectorate. Germany obtained the southern part of the possessions of Zanzibar on the mainland; Italy bought in 1905 its possession on the Somali coast; and a strip ten miles wide on the coast of British East Africa alone remains to the sultan of all his domains on the mainland, he himself being under the tutelage of a British official. Zanzibar is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, with missions conducted by the Congregation of the Holy Ghost, in both islands and on the mainland. The mission has about 3,500 adherents. There are ten stations. Schools and hospitals, conducted by Roman Catholic sisters, have been built in the city of Zanzibar. Protestant missions are represented by the Universities Mission which, after abandoning the Shiré country in 1861, moved its headquarters to the city of Zanzibar. Here Bishops William George Tozer, Edward Steere, and Charles Alan Smythies prepared the way for advance into the interior. The mission has a very fine cathedral and hospitals and schools in the island of Zanzibar, besides a line of stations on the mainland in German East Africa, which extends to Lake Nyassa. What has already been said of versions of the Bible in British East Africa applies to Zanzibar also. The city of Zanzibar itself is a Babel of all African nations and tribes. Cape Colony: A British colony occupying the southern part of the African continent; bounded on the north by German Southwest Africa, Bechuanaland, the Orange River Colony, Basutoland, and Natal. The colony was founded by the Dutch in 1652, was taken by the British in 1796, was again given up to Holland in 1803, was reoccupied by the British in 1806, and, finally, was ceded to Great Britain in 1814. Area (1904), including native states and Walfisch Bay on the coast of German Southwest Africa, 276,995 sq. miles; population (1904) 2,405,552, of whom 580,380 are white, and 1,825,172 are colored. Of the colored population about 250,000 are a mixture of various races; 15,000 are Malays; and the rest are Hottentots, Kafirs, Fingoes, Bechuanas, etc. About 1,118,000 of the population are Protestants; 23,000 are Roman Catholics; 20,000 are Mohammedans; 4,000 are Jews; while 1,226,000 are pagans. Roman Catholic missions were represented in the colony before the English occupation, by two priests riding in Cape Town. In 1806, when the British captured the colony, these priests were expelled. Sixteen years later two priests were again stationed at Cape Town, without liberty, however, to go into the surrounding country. The existing mission in the colony did not commence until 1837, when Raymond Griffith arrived. He had been an Irish Dominican monk, was appointed vicar apostolic and consecrated bishop by the Archbishop of Dublin, Aug. 24, 1837. Roman Catholic missions now occupy about 100 stations and outstations in the colony. There are two vicariates and a prefecture apostolic. Protestant Christians do not seem to have worked among the native population during the Dutch period. In 1737 the Moravian George Schmidt was sent to Cape Town, at the request of certain ministers in Holland, to try to benefit the Hottentots and the Bushmen. His success only served to anger the colonists; and he was sent back to Europe in 1742. Fifty years later, in 1792, the Moravians were permitted to reopen their mission in Cape Colony and it has been continued and expanded until the present time, now extending to the east and west. From 1822 to 1867 it had charge of the leper settlement at Hemel en Aarde and Robben Island. About 20,000 native Christians are connected with the Moravian mission. The London Missionary Society began a mission in Cape Colony in 1799 with Vanderkemp as its first missionary, and with such men as Moffat, Livingstone, Philip, and Mackenzie as his successors in a long and brilliant history which through many pains has added some 70,000 natives to the Christian body within the colony. The society has moved its missions northward into Bechuanaland and Rhodesia, one single station being still retained at Hankey in Cape Colony as an educational center. The Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society of England commenced a mission in the colony in the year 1814 with Barnabas Shaw as its first missionary. This mission afterward spread over the whole of the colony, and extended into Natal, Transvaal, Bechuanaland, and Rhodesia. The care of the native congregations within the colony now rests with the South African Methodist Church, which has connected with it native Christians to the number of 113,600. The Glasgow Missionary Society in 1821 sent two missionaries into Kaffraria which has since been annexed to Cape Colony. The Scottish missions have been greatly extended and are now conducted under the United Free Church of Scotland, having given to missionary history such names as Ross and James Stewart, the latter called by the British High Commissioner "the biggest human" in the region. They extend through Kaffraria into Natal and have a native following of some 30,000. Their most prominent work is in the great educational establishments of Lovedale and Blythwood, which have tested and proved the ability of the Kafir-Zulu race to become civilized and useful. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel began a mission in Cape Colony in 1821. This mission is now practically merged into the diocesan work of the Anglican Church which reports some 20,000 baptized native Christians. The Paris Missionary Society felt its way into Basutoland from a station at Tulbagh (1830). The Berlin Missionary Society (1834) with 38 stations and 10,000 adherents, and the Rheniah (1829) and the Hermannsburg (1854) missionary societies of Germany also have extensive and successful missions in Cape Colony. The African Methodist Episcopal Church, the National Baptist Convention, the Seventh-day Adventists, all from the United States, the Plymouth Brethren, and the Salvation Army are also engaged in missionary work at various points in this great colony. Among the achievements of missions must be reckoned the success of the Rev. Dr. John Philip of the London Missionary Society in securing attention on the part of the government to the infringement of ordinary rights of natives in the midst of a rush of colonists inclined to regard the natives as mere obstacles to be removed. Dr. Philip was calumniated and persecuted; but the authorities finally understood that righteous treatment of the blacks is a necessity to the prosperity of the colony. The appearance in recent years of the "Ethiopian movement" (see above, [121]I., 4, § 5) has aroused much suspicion; nevertheless, the authorities aim to secure justice to all, and more and more rely on missions to raise the moral standard of the negro community. See [122]Cape Colony. Central Africa Protectorate (British): A territory lying west and south of Lake Nyassa, and popularly called Nyassaland. Its southern portion includes the Shiré highlands and extends southward along the Shiré River as far as to the mouth of the Ruo. Area 40,980 sq. miles; population estimated at 990,000. Religion chiefly fetish-worship. About 300,000 of the people are Mohammedans, and about 18,000 are Christians. There is, however, no regular census, and these figures are mere estimates. Europeans living in the protectorate number about 500; and there are about 200 East Indians connected with the military establishment. The language of the Angoni hillmen is a dialect of Zulu; that of the lake people is in several dialects of which that known as Nyanja ("lake"), is becoming prevalent; that of the eastern part of the Shim district is Yao. Lake Nyassa was discovered by Dr. Livingstone in 1859. The country then was a select hunting-ground of Arab slave-raiders from Zanzibar and of the Portuguese from the Zambesi. Until 1895, when the slave-raids were stopped by the British authorities, it is said that about 20,000 men, women, and children each year were seized and made to carry ivory to the coast. There they were sold along with the ivory which they had painfully borne for 500 miles. Into such an environment missionaries went at the instance of Livingstone, risking, and with disheartening frequency sacrificing, life because they believed that the people could be saved by teaching them the principles of manhood. The Arabs and the Yao savages were against them, the climate sapped their strength, and even wild beasts attacked them. Yet the missionaries won the day, with their Bible, their practical lessons in kindliness, and with their schools, their industrial training, and their high moral principles. The story of the founding of the protectorate is a story of heroism and of the power of the Bible which the devoted missionaries gave to a people whose very speech was illiterate. The Universities Mission, established at Livingstone's request, entered the Shiré territory under Bishop Charles Frederick Mackenzie in 1861. The hostility of the slave-raiders and the rigors of the climate broke up the mission for a time, but it is now thoroughly established at Likoma Island in Lake Nyassa, and in some sixty villages on the east shore of the lake and among the Yao tribesmen in the eastern part of the Shiré district. The Livingstonia Mission of the Free Church of Scotland, entered the country in 1875 and established its headquarters first at Cape Maclear at the south end of the lake, moving afterward to high land well toward the northern end of the lake, where the Livingstonia Institution now stands in a most salubrious spot overlooking the western shore. This mission has about 240 stations and outstations. The schools, printing-house, hospitals, and industrial training establishments of this mission are noteworthy for completeness and beneficent influence quite as much as for their conquest of the chaos which existed when the missionaries arrived on the field. The Church of Scotland founded a mission in the Shiré highlands in 1876. The site was chosen because the missionaries were too ill and exhausted to go farther than the little group of native huts which seemed a haven of rest. Close by that miserable village has arisen about the mission the little town of Blantyre, whose post office is now a recognized station of the Universal Postal Union. This mission has about forty stations and outstations and a fine group of schools and hospitals. The Zambesi Industrial Mission has taken up a large tract of land lying to the northwest of Blantyre and is teaching the natives to cultivate coffee and other valuable crops. It has about thirty schools in connection with its various settlements. The South African (Dutch) Ministers' Union of Cape Town established a mission in 1901 in the Angoni hill-country west of Lake Nyassa. It has seven stations and is winning favor among the people. All of these missions have been greatly aided by a commercial enterprise known as the African Lakes Corporation, formed in 1878 by Scottish business men with the definite purpose of cooperating with the missions in civilizing the people of the protectorate. It has organized a regular steamboat service on the lake and the Shiré River to the coast at Chinde, and is at last on a paying business basis. The formal establishment of the British protectorate over the lake district took place in 1891. It is one of the marks of progress in the civilization of the tribes of the region that in 1904 a large section of the fierce Angoni tribe voluntarily accepted British control and British regulations. The missions named above have about 190 missionaries (men and women), 985 native preachers and teachers, 25,000 children in their schools, and about 16,000 professing Christians on their rolls. Several of the languages of the protectorate have been reduced to writing and the Bible is in process of publication in the Nyanja, several dialects of which, the Yao, the Konde, and the Tonga, are now being unified. The Angoni tribe, in the western part of the protectorate, being of Zulu race, are able to use the Zulu Bible, of which a considerable number of copies are brought from South Africa every year. Nyassaland is carried on the lists of the Roman Catholic Church as a provicariate confided to the care of the Algerian Missionary Society. But beyond 10 missionaries, 2 schools, and 1,000 adherents little can be learned of the progress of the mission. Dahomey: A French possession in West Africa having a coast-line of seventy miles between Togoland and the British colony of Lagos, and extending northward to the French territory of Senegambia and the Niger. The French gained their first footing on this coast in 1851, Area 60,000 sq. miles; population estimated at about 1,000,000, commonly of unmixed negro stock. Capital, Porto Novo on the coast. About sixty miles of railway have been built and 400 miles are projected. It is worth noting that of the whole value of the annual imports into Dahomey one-fourth represents the liquor traffic. A Roman Catholic mission has existed for some years under the direction of the Lyons Seminary for Missions in Africa. There are twenty-two missionaries and fifteen schools. The number of the Roman Catholics in the mission is estimated at about 5,000. The only Protestant mission is that of the Wesleyan Missionary Society with a central station at Porto Novo. It has two missionaries who are of French nationality and it occupies ten outstations in the interior. The number of professing Protestant Christians is about 1,000. Egypt: A tributary province of the Turkish empire lying on the Mediterranean Sea east of Tripoli, and touching Arabia on the east at the Isthmus of Suez. Area (excluding the Sudan) about 400,000 sq. miles, of which the Nile Valley and Delta, comprising the most of the cultivated and inhabited land, cover only about 13,000 sq. miles. The country is ruled by a hereditary prince called the Khedive, under British tutelage and control. Population (1897) 9,734,405. Capital, Cairo. The Mohammedan population of Egypt numbers about 8,979,000. Of the Christians 648,000 belong to the Oriental Churches, 608,000 being connected with the Coptic or Old Egyptian Church. There are also 56,000 Roman Catholics and 27,000 Protestants. About 25,000 of the population are Jews. The Roman Catholic establishments in Egypt date from the beginning of the seventeenth century, being at that time connected with the orders in charge of the holy places at Jerusalem. The present apostolic vicariate of Egypt was established in 1839. Roman Catholic missions in Egypt are under the minor Franciscan friars and the Lyons Seminary for Missions. There are also Lazarists, Jesuits, and Sisters of the Order of the Good Shepherd, Sisters of the Order of the Mother of God, Sisters of the Order of San Carlo Borromeo, and Sisters of Our Lady of Sion. There are about ninety schools, besides orphanages, hospitals, and other benevolent establishments. Protestant missions are carried on by the American United Presbyterian Mission (1854), the Church Missionary Society (in its present form 1882), the North Africa Mission, the Egypt General Mission, the Church of Scotland Committee on Missions to the Jews, the London Jews Society, the American Seventh-day Adventist Medical Missions, the (German) Sudan Pioneer Mission, and the (German) Deaconesses of Kaiserswerth (1857). The United Presbyterian Mission is the largest of these missions, occupying stations throughout the Nile Valley and in the Sudan. All together these missions report 166 stations and outstations, 154 missionaries, with 515 native workers, 171 schools, with over 14,000 pupils and students, ten hospitals and dispensaries, two publishing houses, and about 26,000 adherents. Under British control religious liberty is more or less assured. As a consequence Mohammedans are also included in small numbers among the mission converts. The Church Missionary Society's mission publishes a weekly paper in Arabic and English expressly for Mohammedans. The Bible in Arabic, translated and printed at the expense of the American Bible Society in Beirut, is circulated throughout Egypt, Arabic being the language of the people. See [123]Egypt. Eritrea: An Italian possession in Africa extending 670 miles along the coast of the Red Sea and inland to Abyssinia and the Egyptian Sudan. Area about 85,500 sq. miles; population (estimated) 450,000, of whom about 3,000 are Europeans. The capital is Asmara. The native population of Eritrea is chiefly nomadic. In religion more than 100,000 may be reckoned Mohammedans; 17,000, Roman Catholic; 12,000, of the Eastern Churches; 1,000, Protestants; and 500, Jews. The remainder of the population is pagan, belonging to different races. Roman Catholic missionaries have made this region a basis of operations in Abyssinia for nearly three centuries, having been expelled from Abyssinia proper a number of times. Their central establishments are now at Massowah (Massaua) and Keran, where they have a hospital, schools, and two or three orphanages. Protestant missions in Eritrea also directed toward the Abyssinian population are carried on by the Swedish National Society. They have 10 stations on the borders of Tigré and in the province formerly known as Bogos with about 15 schools, a hospital, a dispensary, and a small but growing band of evangelical Christians. The Swedish missions have done good service in securing a translation of the Bible into the Galla language (1898), and through trained native workers have succeeded in establishing themselves among the Galla people in the south of Abyssinia. French Guinea: A territory forming a part of the newly organized administrative region known as French West Africa. It lies on the coast between Portuguese Guinea and the British colony of Sierra Leone, extending inland some 400 miles to the district of Senegambia and the Niger. Area about 95,000 sq. miles; population estimated at 2,200,000. About 1,000,000 are Mohammedans; more than 1,000,000 are pagans; 1,000 are Roman Catholics, and 500 are Protestants. The capital is Konakry; from which place a railway is now under construction to the Niger River. French colonization in this district began as long ago as 1685, but its development has only been of recent date (1843). The government is undertaking in this, as in all other parts of French West Africa, to introduce a uniform system of education. This, if carried out, will prove of inestimable advantage to the population. The Roman Catholic mission in French Guinea, is carried on by the Lyons Congregations of the Holy Ghost and of the Immaculate Heart of Mary. There are about 10 missionaries with 12 schools. A Protestant missionary enterprise, following one commenced in 1804 by the Church Missionary Society, is carried on in the Rio Pongas region by West Indian Christians aided by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. The missionaries are colored men from the West Indies specially chosen for this work, which has been undertaken with the thought of making amends to Africa for the wrongs inflicted upon its people by England and her colonies. The New Testament has been translated into the Susu language (1858). French Kongo: A French colonial possession which occupies the west coast of Africa between the Spanish possessions of the Rio Muni on the borders of the Kongo Independent State and Kamerun, and which extends inland to Lake Chad. The French occupation began in 1841 in a small colony on the Gabun River. Its extension to the Kongo River followed the explorations of De Brazza, between 1875 and 1880. Area about 450,000 sq. miles; population estimated at from 8,000,000 upward. Capital, Libreville on the Gabun. Adjoining this territory in the Lake Chad region, Bagirmi, comprising some 20,000 sq. miles, and Wadai, with 170,000 sq. miles, in 1903 submitted to the French control. These two territories are strongly Mohammedan. French Kongo proper has about 3,500,000 Mohammedans in its northern sections, the remainder of the people being pagans of the usual African type. In race the people of the coast are not of the Bantu stock found in the interior. Roman Catholic missions are carried on by the Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Mary and the Algerian missionary order. The ecclesiastical center is Santa Maria on the Gabun, where is the vicariate, erected in 1842 under the name, at first, of "the apostolic vicariate of both Guineas." In the Roman Catholic mission there are about fifty priests and about thirty schools with about 5,000 adherents. Protestant missions were established in 1842 by missionaries of .the American Board. The mission was afterward transferred to the American Presbyterian Board (North), and later for political reasons the interior stations were passed over to the French missionaries of the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society. Together these two missions have 23 missionaries and about 1,200 adherents. The languages having been reduced to writing by missionaries, the Bible has been translated into Mpongwe (1850-74) and Benga (1858-88), and various parts have been translated into Dikele, Fang (also called by the French Pahouin), Bulu, and Galwa. Gambia: A British colony and protectorate lying on both sides of the Gambia River, extending some 250 miles inland from its mouth and closely hemmed in by the French West African territory. The colony was commenced in 1662. Area, estimated (1903), 3,061 sq. miles; population, estimated (1903), 163,781; capital, Bathurst on the Island of Saint Mary. There are about 90,000 Mohammedans in the colony, 56,000 pagans, 4,000 Roman Catholics, and 2,000 Protestant Christians. All of these figures, however, are estimates, excepting as to the colony proper. The Roman Catholic mission is under the care of the Lyons Seminary for Missions in Africa, and carries on two or three schools. The Protestant mission is carried on by the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society which entered the colony in 1821. It has 7 outstations, 4 schools, and about 2,000 adherents in the colony. The Society of Friends established a mission in this colony in 1822, and schools were carried on by Hannah Kilham until her death in 1832, when the mission was given up. The history of the Protestant missions here includes a very considerable loss of life among the missionaries, due to the unhealthfulness of the country. The Arabic Bible is used to a limited extent, and parts of the Bible have been translated also into the Wolof and Mandingo languages. German East Africa: A German colony and sphere of influence lying on the east coast of Africa, between British East Africa and Portuguese East Africa, and extending inland to Lakes Nyassa and Tanganyika. Area about 384,000 sq. miles; population (estimated) 7,000,000, including 1,437 Europeans. There are about 15,000 Arabs, Indians, Chinese, and other Asiatics in this territory. A railway has been built from Tanga on the coast about eighty miles inland to Korogwe; it is to be carried ultimately to Lake Tanganyika. In religion the people of the country are: pagans, about 6,500,000; Mohammedans, for the most part near the coast, 300,000; Hindus, Buddhists, etc., 12,000; Roman Catholics, 20,000; Protestants, 7,000. Roman Catholic missions are carried on by the Congregation of the Holy Ghost, the Trappists, the Benedictines, and the Algerian Missionary Society. They have extensive establishments about the northern and eastern shores of Lake Tanganyika, and report 58 stations, 195 missionaries, 77 nuns, and 295 schools with 17,823 scholars. It is possible that a part of the figures here given refer to missions lying beyond the border of the Kongo Independent State. Ecclesiastical jurisdiction centers at Zanzibar. The Protestant missions are carried on by the Church Missionary Society, the Universities Mission, the German East Africa Mission, the Leipsic Missionary Society, the Moravian Church, and the Berlin Missionary Society. The two last-named societies are active at the north end of Lake Nyassa; and the Moravians are extending stations thence northward. The Universities Mission has stations along the Rovuma River and on the eastern shore of Lake Nyassa. The Berlin society has a station at Dar-al-Salam on the Indian Ocean; and the other German societies have their stations mostly along the northern boundary and in the foothills of Mounts Kilima-Njaro and Mweru. All these societies together report 60 central stations, 123 missionaries, and 230 schools with about 11,000 scholars. The Leipsic society has a printing-press, and publishes a newspaper at one of the Kilima-Njaro stations. The Suahili version of the Bible is used along the coast (completed in 1892). The New Testament has been translated into Yao (1880) and Gogo (1887). Some of the Gospels have been translated into Bondei, Chagga, Kaguru, Nyamwezi, Sagalla, Shambale, and Sukuma, and the translation is progressing in several of these as the people acquire a taste for reading. German Southwest Africa: A German colony and protectorate on the west coast of Africa, lying south of Angola and bounded on the east and south by Cape Colony and the Bechuanaland protectorate. Area 322,450 sq. miles; population about 200,000, composed of Namaquas (Hottentots) and Damaras, with Hereros and Ovambos in the north, who are of Bantu stock. The European population numbers 4,682. Walfisch Bay on this coast is a British possession belonging to Cape Colony. The seat of administration is Windhoek. The chief seaport is Swakopmund, whence a railway of 236 miles leads to Windhoek. The Hereros in the north and the Namaquas in the south have been at war against the German authorities since 1904, and the colony has suffered much in consequence. Roman Catholic missions are carried on by the Oblates of Hünfeld, and the Oblates of St. Francis of Sales (Vienna). The latter have 2 missionaries and 4 nuns. The other missions have been disturbed by the war, and statistics are not given. Protestant missions are carried on by the Rhenish Missionary Society of Germany, and the Finland Missionary Society. Together these societies had about 16,000 adherents before the war; but recent statistics are lacking, a number of the stations having been destroyed. The Bible has been translated into Namaqua (1881), and the New Testament into Herero (1877). Some Gospels have been completed in Kuanyama and Ndonga (Ovambo). Gold Coast Colony: A British crown colony and territory stretching for 350 miles along the Gulf of Guinea, in West Africa, between the Ivory Coast and Togoland. Area 119,260 sq. miles; population 1,500,000. About 32,000 of the people are Mohammedans; 35,000, Protestants; 6,000, Roman Catholics; and the rest are pagans of the animist type with deep veneration for fetishes. The Roman Catholic missions are connected with the Lyons Seminary for African Missions, and have 16 missionaries with 13 schools. Protestant missions were commenced in 1752 by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. As a result of this mission an African, Philip Quaque, was taken to England, educated, ordained, and returning to the Gold Coast, preached there for some fifty years. The missions now existing are those of the Basel Missionary Society, the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society (England), the National Baptist Convention (U. S. A.), and, since 1905, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. These missions together report 875 places of regular worship, 82 missionaries (men and women), 1,088 native workers, 235 schools with 11,557 scholars, and 34,835 Christian adherents. The missions make steady progress; but, at the same time, they point out that Mohammedanism is also making progress among the pagans. Kumassi, the former capital of Ashantiland, is now connected with the coast by a railway 168 miles long; and light steamers are used on the Volta River. An artificial harbor is being constructed at Sekondi, the coast terminal of the railway. The Bible has been translated into Akra (1844-65) and Otshi (1870). The New Testament has been translated into Fanti (1884) and Ewé (1872). Progress has been made toward completing the Bible in both of these dialects. Ivory Coast: A French territory included in the great administrative region known as French West Africa. It has its coast-line between Liberia and the British Gold Coast Colony, and extends inland to the territory of Senegambia and the Niger. The French first obtained possessions on this coast in 1843. Area 200,000 sq. miles; population about 3,000,000, of whom 300 are Europeans. In religion about 200,000 are Mohammedans; about 1,000, Roman Catholics; and the rest, pagans. The capital is Bingerville. A railway is being constructed inland from Bassani, of which 110 miles are nearly finished. The only missions in the country are carried on by the Lyons Seminary for Missions in Africa (Roman Catholic). There are said to be 16 priests, who have 7 schools and some orphanages. Kamerun: A protectorate and colonial possession of Germany, occupying the west coast of Africa between French Kongo and Nigeria. Inland it extends in a northeasterly direction to Lake Chad. Area about 191,000 sq. miles; population (estimated) 3,500,000, of whom (in 1904) 710 were whites. The native population is largely of the Bantu race, with tribes of Sudan negroes inland. Capital, Buea. The German annexation took place in 1884. Roman Catholic missions have been active in this region since 1889, and are in charge of the Pallotin Missionary Society of Limburg. They report 7 stations, 34 missionaries, 20 nuns, 2,418 pupils in their schools, and 3,780 Roman Catholic Christians. Protestant missions were commenced by Alfred Saker of the Baptist Missionary Society (England) in 1844, he having been expelled from Fernando Po by the Spanish, government. With the German colonization of Kamerun (1880-82) difficulties arose, and the Baptist mission was turned over to the Basel Missionary Society, T. J. Comber and G. Grenfell of the Baptist mission going south to found a mission on the Kongo. A considerable body of the native Baptists declined to accept the transfer, and the German Baptists of Berlin sent missionaries to care for them. The German Baptist mission reports 14 missionaries, 1,400 pupils, and 2,170 professed Christians. The Basel Society's mission, established in 1885, has extended inland, and reports (1905) 64 missionaries, 163 native workers, 6,452 pupils, and 6,422 professed Christians. The eagerness of the natives to learn to read is remarkable. The American Presbyterians (North) opened a mission in the southern part of the country in 1885-93, which has 30 missionaries, 27 stations and outstations, 15 schools, a hospital, and about 3,000 professing Christians. The entire Bible was translated into Dualla by the Baptista in 1868, and a version of the New Testament in the same language, which others than Baptists can use, was issued in 1902. The Benga Bible, used in the Rio Muni colony, is circulated to some extent in the south of Kamerun, and parts of the Bible have been translated into Isuba and Bala. Kongo Independent State: A region occupying in general the basin of the Kongo River and its tributaries in West Central Africa. It touches the seacoast by a narrow neck that extends along the right bank of the river to its mouth. The left bank is held by Portugal. By international agreement in 1885 the state was placed under the sovereignty of King Leopold II. of Belgium. H. M. Stanley, who first explored the region, was its first administrator. International resolutions declare the navigation of the Kongo and its branches free to all, and proclaim the suppression of the slave-trade and the protection of the native inhabitants. The region has highlands well adapted to the residence of Europeans, and its natural wealth, although but slightly developed, is probably very great. The state appears to be administered upon the ancient colonial theory of deriving revenue from it at all hazards. Great tracts of its territory have been passed over to trading companies, the first condition of whose concessions is an obligation to pay the king of Belgium from 40 to 45 per cent. of their gains. The result has been abuses. The trading companies are charged with forcing the natives to work, treating them in fact as slaves, flogging and killing or mutilating them when they fail to obey orders. Missionaries made facts of this nature known, and King Leopold appointed a commission to examine the situation, with the result that many terrible outrages were found to be habitually committed by the armed guards organized by the trading companies. The commission, while inclined to justify severe measures, as necessary to lead the natives to work, recommended that the trading companies be forbidden to use armed guards or to require forced labor from the people of the districts which they administer. There is some hope of an amelioration of conditions in consequence. The capital is Boma, at the mouth of the Kongo River. The area of the state is estimated at about 900,000 sq. miles; population estimated at from 15,000,000 to 30,000,000. The white people number 2,483. For the most part the people of the Kongo are of the Bantu race. Every tribe has its own dialect, so that the number of dialects is considerable. Roman Catholic missions were established in the Kongo region in the latter part of the fifteenth century. It should be remembered, however, that these early missions were almost entirely in what is now still Portuguese territory. Nothing seems to have been undertaken at that time in the interior of what is now Kongo State. At the present time the Roman Catholic missions extend along the river and in the Ubangi district. They have founded a number of stations also in the Tanganyika region. Schools, industrial work, and agricultural operations are carried on with considerable success. Some of the natives have been trained by the missionaries in Europe as physicians, and render good service as such. Statistics of the missions are not clearly given, but seem to show about 20,000 converts. Protestant missions in this region quickly followed the explorations of H. M. Stanley. The Livingstone Inland Mission from England commenced work on the lower Kongo in 1878, but their stations were shortly transferred to the American Baptist Missionary Union. The Baptist Missionary Society of England established a mission on the upper river in 1879 having for its pioneers Grenfell, Comber, and Bentley; the Plymouth Brethren, led by F. S. Arnot, in the Garenganze region in 1881; the Regions Beyond Missionary Union, in the Balolo district of the upper Kongo in 1889; the American Presbyterians (South), led by S. N. Lapsley, on the Kassai River in 1891; the Swedish Missionary Society on the right bank of the lower Kongo in 1882. These missionary societies have about 200 missionaries and nearly 1,000 native workers, with schools, hospitals, industrial establishments, including printing-houses, and about 15,000 adherents. Several missionary steamers ply on the great river. Educational work is rapidly expanding, the natives showing the greatest eagerness to learn to read. The Belgian commission of inquiry in its report (1905) paid a high tribute to the value of these missions in singling out the field of the Baptist Missionary Society as a district where the natives have been taught to work and are noticeably industrious. Several of the dialects of the region have been reduced to writing by the missionaries. The whole Bible has been printed in Fioti (completed 1904); the New Testament, in Kongo (1893); and parts of the New Testament, in the Teke, Laba, Bopoto, Bolegin, Bangi, Nsembe, and Balolo. These latter translations are more or less tentative, and will hardly be enlarged more rapidly than the increase of readers may demand. In the mean time the Fioti Bible can be understood by people using other dialects in ordinary speech. Lagos: A British colony and protectorate in Western Africa lying on the coast between Dahomey and Southern Nigeria, and extending inland to the French territories of the middle Niger. Area, including Yorubaland and the protectorate, 25,450 sq. miles; population (estimated) 1,500,000. The great mass of the population are pagan fetish-worshipers. There are some 7,000 Mohammedans, 15,000 Roman Catholics, and 32,000 Protestants. A railway has been built from Lagos to Ibadan in the Yoruba country, with a branch to Abeokuta. The Yoruba chiefs are allowed to govern their land under British supervision. Roman Catholic missions are under the Lyons Seminary for African Missions. They report 27 priests, 24 schools, and several charitable institutions. The Protestant missions are carried on by the Church Missionary Society and a native pastorate in cooperation with it; by the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society; by the Southern Baptist Convention (1856); and by the National Baptist Convention (U. S. A.). The whole Protestant missionary body has 189 stations and outstations, 55 missionaries (men and women), 317 native workers, 110 schools with 7,000 scholars, and 3 hospitals and dispensaries. The government maintains Mohammedan and pagan schools, but the pupils availing themselves of this privilege of non-Christian education in 1902 were only 192. Abeokuta was evangelized in the first instance about 1842 by freed slaves who had been taught Christianity in Sierra Leone, 1,000 miles to the westward, and who led the people of the city to invite the Church Missionary Society to send missionaries there. This was done in 1846. A remarkable man connected with this mission in its early days was [124]Samuel Crowther, rescued as a boy from a Portuguese slaver, educated, and sent as a preacher to Abeokuta where he found his relatives. He afterward was consecrated bishop of the Niger in Canterbury Cathedral, and rendered admirable service to the mission during a long life. The assistant bishop of Yorubaland, now, is a full-blooded African. In 1903 the paramount chief of Abeokuta visited London to do homage to the king, and at the same time called at the offices of the Church Missionary Society and the Bible Society to express thanks for great services rendered to his people. The Bible has been translated into Yoruban (1850), and the New Testament into Hausa (1857). One of the Gospels has been tentatively translated into Igbira. Liberia: An independent republic in Western Africa which has grown out of an effort to colonize freed slaves from America. The first settlement was made in 1822. The republican government was organized in 1847. The coast of the republic extends from Sierra Leone to the Ivory Coast Colony. The territory extends about 200 miles inland, and is hemmed in on the east by French territory. Only a region extending about 25 or 30 miles inland from the coast, however, is effectively administered by the republic. Area about 45,000 sq, miles; population (estimated) 2,000,000, about 20,000 of whom are of American origin. The language of the republic is English. Several native dialects are found among the tribes of the interior. It is estimated that there are about 850,000 Mohammedans and somewhat over 1,000,000 pagans in Liberia, with about 500 Roman Catholics and 25,000 Protestant Christians. Roman Catholic missions are dependent upon their headquarters at Free Town in Sierra Leone. The missionaries belong to the Congregation of the Holy Ghost and Sacred Heart of Mary. Since 1903 there has been a separate missionary jurisdiction confided to the Marist Fathers. Protestant missions in Liberia were commenced by the American Baptist Convention through the Rev. Lott Carey, who went to Monrovia in 1822. After disease had carried off many victims among the missionaries the mission was given up. The Presbyterian Church (North) established a mission in Liberia in 1833, which was also given up on account of the ravages of disease among the missionaries. The American Methodist Church established a mission at Monrovia in 1833, of which the Rev. Melville B. Cox was the pioneer. This mission is still carried on with a great measure of success. The American Protestant Episcopal Church established a mission at Cape Palmas in 1834, with the Rev. John (afterward Bishop) Payne as one of the first missionaries. This mission is still carried on with considerable success, about twenty of the mission clergy being from the Grebo tribe of natives. The American Board established a mission at Cape Palmas in 1834, the Rev. J. L. Wilson being one of the earliest missionaries. On account of the unhealthfulness of the region the missionaries and a number of their adherents removed in 1842 to the Gabun district in what is now the French Kongo colony, transferring their buildings and other immovables in Liberia to the Protestant Episcopal Mission. The National Baptist Convention established a mission in Liberia in 1853, and the Evangelical Lutheran General Synod of North America also established a mission in 1860 which is doing good industrial work. These societies together report 92 missionaries and 182 native workers operating at 168 stations, with schools, hospitals, printing-presses, and industrial institutions. Parts of the New Testament have been translated into Grebo (1838). See [125]Liberia. Morocco: An independent Mohammedan empire in Northwest Africa having a coast-line on the Mediterranean and on the Atlantic Ocean. The country is gradually falling under the direction of France. Area 219,000 sq. miles (the southern frontier, however, is not definitely fixed); population (estimated) 5,000,000, being composed of Berbers, Tuaregs, and Arabs. In name, at least, the greater part of the population is reckoned as Mohammedan. There are about 150,000 Jews and about 6,000 Christians of the Roman Catholic and Eastern churches, with a few Protestants. An apostolic prefecture of the Roman Catholics was established at Tangier in 1859, and under it are about forty priests in different cities of Morocco. Protestant missions are carried on by the North Africa Mission (1881), the Gospel Mission Union (U.S.A., 1894), and the Southern Morocco Mission (1888); besides some workers among the Jews in Tangier. There is little religious liberty in Morocco, and there seems to be but little growth of the Protestant community. Natal: A British colony in South Africa lying on the eastern coast between Cape Colony and Portuguese East Africa. It is bounded inland by the Transvaal, the Orange River Colony, and Basutoland. Area 35,306 sq. miles; population (1903) 1,039,787. Of these, 877,388 are Zulu-Kafirs; 97,857, Asiatics; and 82,542, Europeans. About 850,000 of the population are pagans, 30,000 are Hindus, 14,000 are Mohammedans, 15,000 are Buddhists or Confucians, 22,000 are Roman Catholics, and 73,000 are Protestants. The country takes its name from the whim of Vasco da Gama, the Portuguese navigator, who happened to arrive at the coast on Christmas day. Roman Catholic missions are under the care of the Oblates of Mary the Immaculate; they report 50 missionaries and 7 native clergy, with 55 schools and several orphanages and hospitals. Their ecclesiastical center is at Pietermaritzburg, the seat of a vicar apostolic. The local Anglican, Wesleyan, and Dutch Reformed congregations all carry on missionary work; and, besides these, the following eleven missionary societies are at work in Natal: the American Board (1835), whose early missionaries were, Daniel Lindley, Robert Adams, Aldin and Lewis Grout, and Josiah Tyler; the United Free Church of Scotland; the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, both of which entered Natal as an extension of work in Kaffraria; the Berlin Missionary Society; the Hermamusburg Missionary Society; the Norwegian Missionary Society; the Swedish Evangelical Mission Covenant; the Free Methodists of North America; the South Africa General Mission; the National Baptist Convention; and the Plymouth Brethren. All these societies together report 192 stations and outstations, 106 missionaries (men and women), 612 native workers, 161 schools with 7,016 pupils, 2 hospitals, and one printing-house. Many of the native churches formerly connected with the older missions are now independent and self-supporting, and do not appear on the mission statistics because reckoned as churches of the country. Many of the tribal chiefs, who are pagans and polygamists of a rank order, but who nevertheless treat missionaries as benefactors, oppose the Christian Church with all their might as tending to make their "subjects" think for themselves and question the commands of hereditary despots. The British authorities are inclined to hamper the freedom of the missions on account of their suspicion of "Ethiopianism." At present a native preacher may not officiate in a church unless under the immediate supervision of a responsible white clergyman. The Bible has been translated into Zulu (1851-83). This is one of the most important of the African versions published by the American Bible Society. It has a range of circulation extending to Lake Nyassa and into Bechuanaland. Nigeria: A British territory and sphere of influence in West Africa lying on the coast between Lagos and Kamerun, and extending inland between the German and the French possessions as far as Lake Chad. It is divided into Northern and Southern Nigeria. Lagos with its protectorate is naturally a part of the region, but at present is separately administered. Area: Northern Nigeria, 315,000 sq. miles; Southern Nigeria, 49,700 sq. miles; population (estimated for the whole great region) 23,000,000. It is estimated that the Mohammedan part of the population numbers about 10,000,000, and the pagan part about 13,000,000. This is mere guesswork, since the country is not even explored. In all the coast regions the pagans, of the most degraded class of fetish-worshipers, predominate. In Northern Nigeria the Mohammedan element is the ruling one (under British restraint), but there are large sections occupied by pagan tribes. Christians are for the most part in Southern Nigeria, and their numbers are given as: Roman Catholics, 18,000; Protestants, 6,000. The seat of government in Northern Nigeria is Zungeru on the Kaduna River; that of Southern Nigeria is Old Calabar. Steamers ply on the Niger about 400 miles from its mouth. A railway is being constructed in Northern Nigeria from Zungeru toward Kano, a great trading center south of Lake Chad. Roman Catholic missions are carried on by the Congregation of the Holy Ghost and the Sacred Heart of Mary. Ten missionaries are reported with 6 schools. Protestant missions are those of the United Free Church of Scotland in the Calabar region in Southern Nigeria (1846) and of the Church Missionary Society in the Niger delta (1857) and in Northern Nigeria (1902, after a failure in 1890), the Qua Ibo Mission on the Qua River (1887), and the African Evangelistic Mission (1901) and the Sudan United Mission (1903) in Northern Nigeria. The missions in Northern Nigeria are still in the early stage, with little more to show than the names of Wilmot Brooke, J. A. Robinson, and W. R. S. Miller who sacrificed life for that land. In Southern Nigeria there are 82 missionaries (men and women), and 157 schools with 2,482 scholars. The Anglican bishop of this region is assisted by a bishop who is a full-blooded negro. The Bible has been translated into Efik (1862); and tentative translations of single Gospels have been made into Akunakuna, into three or four dialects of Ibo, into Idzo, and into Umon. These are all dialects of Southern Nigeria. Gospels have been translated into the Igbira and Nupé languages besides the Hausa language, all in Northern Nigeria. Orange River Colony: A British possession in South Africa. It has the Transvaal on the north, Natal and Basutoland on the east, and Cape Colony on the west and south. During forty-six years it was the Orange Free State and was annexed to the British crown in May, 1900, in consequence of its participation in the Boer attack on the adjacent British colonies. Area 50,100 sq. miles; population (1904) 385,045, of whom 143,419 are whites and 241,626 are colored. Capital, Bloemfontein. About 220,000 of the inhabitants are pagans. The predominating Christian body is the Dutch Reformed Church. The whole number of Protestants is about 100,000; of Roman Catholics, 5,000. The country is an excellent agricultural region. Diamonds and other precious stones are found in some sections; and the population tends to increase and to become more and more varied in its constituent elements. Roman Catholic missions are in charge of the Oblates of Mary the Immaculate. The statistics of their work in the colony are not separately given, but there seem to be 14 missionary priests and 2 native priests, with 13 schools. Protestant missionary activities are largely in the hands of the local churches. The Dutch Reformed Church has here shown, much more than elsewhere used to be the case, a purpose to work for the evangelization of the native pagans. The Wesleyan Church and the Anglican Church both have missions locally supported; but the work for whites and blacks is not separately reported. Besides this local church work, in beginning which the Paris Missionary Society had a part (1831), the Berlin Missionary Society (1834) is at work in the colony with 33 stations and outstations, 18 missionaries, 148 native workers, 27 schools, and about 8,000 professed Christians connected with its stations. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (1863) has 4 stations among the natives, but its statistics are not separately given. The Zulu Bible, the Chuana version, and the Lesuto version used in Basutoland supply the needs of the people in this colony. Portuguese East Africa: One of the oldest Portuguese possessions in Africa, situated on the east coast between German East Africa and Natal. It extends inland to British Central Africa, and on both banks of the Zambesi River to Rhodesia. It is composed of the districts of Mozambique, Zambesia, and Lourenço Marques. Area 293,400 sq. miles; population (estimated) 3,120,000. Much of the territory is in the hands of trading companies, which administer the laws in their respective districts. Delagoa Bay is connected by railway with Pretoria in the Transvaal, and another railway runs from Beira in Zambesia to Buluwayo in Rhodesia. The Portuguese began their colonies on this coast in 1505, and the Roman Catholic Church has had strong missions in the region ever since. The ecclesiastical organization was effected in 1612. At present missions in this territory are in the hands of the Society of Jesus, with stations extending along the Zambesi River into the interior. About 30 missionaries are reported. Protestant missions are carried on by the American Methodist Episcopal Church at Inhambane, by the Wesleyan Methodists of England in the Delagoa Bay district, by the Swiss Romande Mission in the south, and by the American Board among the Gaza tribes and at Beira, the chief seaport of the district of Zambesia. The Universities Mission has one station in this territory adjoining its field in Nyassaland. These societies together have 40 missionaries (men and women), 103 native workers, and about 7,000 adherents, with hospitals and schools. A printing-press at Inhambane is beginning to form a literature in two native languages. The New Testament has been translated into Tonga (1890), and the Gospels into Sheetswa (1891). A Gospel has been translated into Ronga by the Swiss Romande missionaries. Portuguese Guinea: A Portuguese possession adjoining French Kongo on the West African coast, and surrounded by French territory on the land side. It is included in the administration of the Cape Verde Islands. Area, including the islands, 6,280 sq. miles; population, including the islands, 1,000,000. The population is generally given as including 260,000 Roman Catholics; and there are about 170,000 Mohammedans and over 500,000 pagans on the mainland. Roman Catholic missions were established on the mainland in 1832, and are connected with the ecclesiastical province of Lisbon. They comprise eight Roman Catholic parishes. No Protestant missions have been established in this territory. Rhodesia: An immense territory in South Africa, lying between the Transvaal and the Kongo Independent State, and having as its eastern boundary Portuguese East Africa, and as its western boundary Angola and German Southwest Africa. It is administered as British territory by the British South Africa Company under a British resident commissioner. In its northeastern portion, where it touches Lake Tanganyika, police duties are cared for by the Nyassaland protectorate. It is divided into Southern Rhodesia and Northern Rhodesia by the Zambesi River. Area about 246,000 sq. miles; population about 900,000, of whom 12,000 are Europeans and about 1,100 are Asiatics. There are about 5,000 Roman Catholics and 20,000 Protestants in this country. The Roman Catholic missions are not conterminous with the boundaries of this territory, and it is impossible to give their statistics. The missionaries are of the Algerian Society with a certain number of Jesuits in the Zambesi region. Protestant missions in this region were commenced by Robert Moffat of the London Missionary Society in 1830. Livingstone explored the whole region for the same society and unsuccessfully attempted to establish stations among the Mashonas. John Mackenzie was a worthy successor of such pioneers. At present the Protestant missionary societies in Rhodesia are: the London Missionary Society in Matabeleland and at the southern end of Lake Tanganyika; the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society in Mashonaland and Matabeleland; and the Paris Missionary Society in Barotseland in the territory north of the Zambesi, which F. Coillard entered in 1885 as an extension of the Society's work in Basutoland, the Barotses having the same speech as the Basutos. The Methodist Episcopal Missionary Society (U. S. A.) and the American Board have missions in the eastern part of Southern Rhodesia, near the Portuguese frontier. These societies together have 112 stations and outstations, 70 missionaries (men and women), 6,000 pupils in their schools, and 15,000 professed Christians. The construction of railways, connecting Rhodesia with Cape Town and the Portuguese seaports and opening up the country beyond the Zambesi, is bringing many colonists into the country; and their advent implies that a testing time of the reality of the Christianity of the native churches is at hand. The people use the Bible in Zulu, in Sechuana, and in Lesuto. Tentative translations of Gospels have been made in the Matabele and the Mashona languages. Rio De Oro: A Spanish possession in North Africa stretching southward along the shore to the Atlantic Ocean from the Morocco frontier and extending inland to the French possessions of the Sahara. Area about 70,000 sq. miles; population (estimated) 130,000, almost all Mohammedans. The territory is administered by the governor of the Canary Islands. Roman Catholic missions ecclesiastically connected with the Canary Islands are established at the points occupied by Spanish traders. There are no Protestant missions in the country. Rio Xuni: Spanish possession in West Africa adjoining the German Kamerun colony and surrounded on the east and south by the territory of the French Kongo. Area 9,800 sq. miles; population (estimated) 140,000, including about 300 whites. Roman Catholic missions have existed here since 1855 and are carried on by the Spanish Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Mary, being ecclesiastically connected with the island diocese of Annobon and Fernando Po. A Protestant mission has been carried on in this territory by the American Presbyterians (North) who established themselves in 1855 on the island of Corisco, and later on the Benito River. They have 4 stations and outstations, 7 schools, and about 300 professed Christians. The Bible has been translated into the Benga language (1858), which has a somewhat extensive domain in the coast regions. Senegal: A French colony in West Africa between the Gambia and the Senegal rivers. It consists of a narrow strip of coast land, forming the colony proper, together with certain ports on the Senegal River. Area 438 sq. miles; population (1904) 107,826, of whom 2,804 Are Europeans. The people of the colony proper are citizens, having the right to vote, and being represented by a deputy in the French parliament. The capital of the colony is St. Louis, on the seacoast. Roman Catholic missions have long existed in Senegal, and were placed under an ecclesiastical prefecture in 1765. There are about 5,000 native Roman Catholics in the colony. The only Protestant mission working in Senegal is that of the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society, which has a station at St. Louis (1863) and two or three small congregations in the vicinity. Besides the Arabic Bible, which is occasionally called for, some of the Gospels have been translated into the Wolof and Mandingo languages (1882). Senegambia and the Niger: An immense French protectorate comprising the territories formerly called Western Sudan, with the larger part of the Sahara, having the colony of Senegal on the west, the colonies of the Ivory Coast, the Gold Coast, Dahomey, and Togoland on the south, and extending on the north to the Algerian Sahara. Area 2,500,000 sq. miles; population (estimated) 10,000,000. The prevailing religion is Mohammedanism. Many pagan tribes exist who serve Mohammedan rulers and furnish slaves for the markets of Tripoli and the Barbary States. The capital is Kayes, on the Senegal River. This great territory, with the French colonies of Senegal, French Guinea, Ivory Coast, and Dahomey, forms a single region known as French West Africa, of which the governor-general resides at Dakar on the coast of Senegal. Steamers run regularly on the Senegal River some 400 miles to Kayes; and a railway has been constructed from Kayes 650 miles to some important points on the upper Niger. A feature of this region is that the French government has planned a universal system of education which it is endeavoring to apply throughout the territories effectively occupied. Roman Catholic missions have been carried on for a number of years at several of the posts on the Senegal and Niger rivers; the number of converts is reported as 10,000. No Protestant missions are reported in this great region. Sierra Leone: A British colony and protectorate in West Africa, lying on the coast between Liberia and French Guinea, and extending inland about 180 miles, limited by the boundaries of the French possessions and of Liberia. Area about 34,000 sq. miles; population about 1,100,000. Of the people about 1,000,000 are pagans, 20,000 are Mohammedans, 5,000 are Roman Catholics, and 50,000 are Protestants. The colony proper is limited to the Sierra Leone peninsula. It was the place whence in 1562 the first slaves were taken to the West Indies under the British flag. After slaves in England had been set free, in 1772, a district in Sierra Leone was set apart to be colonized by liberated slaves. Here, from 1786 on, freed slaves were landed and almost abandoned to their own resources except as to food--a great crowd of debased creatures from all parts of Africa, knowing no common language and having no principle of life except such evil things as they had picked up during slavery among Europeans. The situation of these freed slaves had a powerful influence in turning English missionary zeal to West Africa. The Roman Catholic establishment is under an apostolic vicariate erected in 1858 at Freetown. The missionaries are of the Congregation of the Holy Ghost and the Sacred Heart of Mary. The number of Roman Catholics is 2,800. The Protestant missionary enterprise was commenced in the latter part of the eighteenth century by missionaries from Scotland; three having died soon after their arrival, the mission was given up. The Church Missionary Society sent missionaries to Sierra Leone in 1804; but they were instructed to go north and begin their mission in the Susu country on the Rio Pongas in what is now French Guinea. They were all Germans, chosen because of the difficulty of securing ordination of Englishmen for this society. The mission came to naught through the hostility of the slave-dealers, and was finally transferred (1814-16) to Sierra Leone. Here a solid work was soon organized among the freed slaves, and has grown ever since. The Protestant missionary societies now working in that field are: the Church Missionary Society, the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society, the Wesleyan Methodist Connection of America, the United Brethren (U. S. A.) in the Mendi region, and the Christian and Missionary Alliance (U. S. A.) in the eastern part of the protectorate. The Church Missionary Society field is almost wholly in the protectorate, the congregations in Sierra Leone being self-supporting and independent. Together the mission stations and outstations number about 131. There are 42 missionaries (men and women), 117 schools, and about 45,000 professed Christians connected with the missions. The English Bible is used in the colony. The New Testament has been translated into Temné (1866); parts of the New Testament into Mendi; and single Gospels, into Bullom and Kuranko. The Yoruba mission of the Church Missionary society was an outgrowth of the society's work among freed slaves at Sierra Leone. See below, [126]III., Lagos. Somaliland (British): A British protectorate on the east coast of North Africa, lying between Abyssinia and the sea and between French Somaliland and Italian Somaliland. It is administered by a consul-general. Area about 60,000 sq. miles; population (estimated) 300,000; religion, Mohammedan. Most of the people of this district are nomads and very fanatical in their intolerance of Christians. The English government has been at a considerable expense in money and men to pacify the tribes of the interior, who have attempted to drive the English from the country on religious grounds. No missions are reported in this district. Somaliland (French): A French protectorate on the eastern coast of North Africa, near the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, between the Italian colony of Eritrea and British Somaliland, extending inland to the Abyssinian border and including the colony of Obock. Capital, Jibuti. Area about 46,000 sq. miles; population about 200,000, mostly Mohammedans, with some 40,000 pagans, and in the colony of Obock about 8,000 Christians. A railway has been constructed from Jibuti to the Harrar frontier in Abyssinia. There has been for many years a Roman Catholic mission conducted by the French Capuchins who have two or three schools at Obock and Jibuti, and are reaching out toward Abyssinia. Somaliland (Italian): An Italian possession on the eastern coast of North Africa, lying between the Gulf of Aden and Abyssinia, and between British Somaliland and the mouth of the Juba River, the frontier of British East Africa. The sovereign rights of the Sultan of Zanzibar over this coast region were bought by Italy in 1905. Area about 100,000 sq. miles; population (estimated) 400,000, chiefly Mohammedans, with about 50,000 pagans. There are no records of missions established in this wild territory. Sudan: This term is here limited to the Egyptian Sudan, the Western and Central Sudan being absorbed in the main into French spheres of influence to which other names have been given (see [127]Senegambia and the Niger, above). The Egyptian Sudan is a territory extending south from the frontier of Egypt to Uganda and the Kongo Independent State, and west from the Red Sea to the unmarked boundary of the French sphere of influence. It is nominally a possession of Egypt, but in fact is ruled for Egypt by the British. English and Egyptian flags are used together throughout the territory. Area about 950,000 sq. miles; population (estimated) 2,000,000. The population of the country was much reduced during the sixteen years' rule of the Mahdi and his dervishes, who as ardent Mohammedans wished to show the world how a country ought to be governed. General Gordon having been killed by the Mahdi's party in 1885, one of the first acts of the English on recovering the land in 1898 was to found a great "Gordon Memorial" College at Khartum, the scene of his murder, and now the seat of the new administration. The majority of the people are Mohammedans, with an uncertain number of pagan tribes in the southern districts. A considerable number of Greek, Coptic, and Armenian traders is found in the Khartum district. Roman Catholic missions exist at Khartum and Omdurman and among the pagans at Fashoda; a Mission of the American United Presbyterian Church has been founded on the Sobat River; and the Church Missionary Society has established missionaries (1906) at or near Bor in the vacant pagan country between the two first-named missions. All of these missions are too newly established to have any visible fruit except attendance at schools. The Arabic Bible is circulated in the Mohammedan parts of the Sudan. Gospels have been translated into the Dinka language. Togoland: A German colony in West Africa, occupying the coast of the Gulf of Guinea between the Gold Coast Colony and Dahomey. It extends inland to the French territory of Senegambia and the Niger. Area about 32,000 sq. miles; population (estimated) 1,500,000, chiefly pagan; capital, Lome. The German government carries on several schools for the instruction of the natives, and is training them for administrative posts. Roman Catholic missions here are conducted by the Steyl Society for Divine Work. The missionaries number 28, with 9 nuns, 52 schools, 2,119 pupils, and 2,203 Roman Catholic Christians. Protestant missionary work is carried on by the North German Missionary Society (1847), and by the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society, which employs German Methodists for this field. The two societies report 78 stations and outstations, 31 missionaries (men and women), 69 schools with 3,111 pupils, and 4,600 professed Christians. The Ewé New Testament is used here, and a special translation of one of the Gospels, to satisfy local variations, has been tentatively prepared. Transvaal: A colony of Great Britain in South Africa, lying north of the Orange River Colony and Natal, and west of Portuguese East Africa. Area 111,196 sq. miles; population (1904) 1,268,716 of whom 969,389 are colored, including Chinese and Hindus, and 299,327 are whites. The colony was settled in 1836-37 by Dutch who emigrated from Cape Colony. In 1899 dissensions with Great Britain respecting sovereignty culminated in war, and in 1900 Great Britain formally annexed the territory to her South African domains, the Boers accepting the annexation after two years. The capital is Pretoria. The religious statistics show the pagans to number nearly 1,000,000; Roman Catholics, 10,000; Protestants, 256,000; Jews, 10,000; Buddhists and Confucians, 15,000. The Dutch churches form the largest single group of Protestants. Chinese laborers at the mines are a recent addition to the population. Numbers of negroes from all parts of Africa are also drawn to Johannesburg for work in the mines, about 75,000 natives and other colored people being gathered there by opportunities for work. The Anglican, Wesleyan, and Dutch Reformed local churches all carry on missions among the natives. Other Protestant missions are those of the American Board (1893), the Berlin Missionary Society (1859) opened by A. Merensky and Knothe, the Hermannsburg Missionary Society (1857), and the Swiss Romande Mission led by H. Berthoud (1875). These societies together report (not including the enterprises of the local churches) 112 missionaries (men and women), 2,344 native workers, 300 schools with 14,674 pupils, and 84,000 professing Christian adherents. Efforts to improve the character of the workers in the mining compounds of Johannesburg are meeting with some success. The Zulu Bible is much used in the Transvaal as well as the Chuana and Lesuto versions. The New Testament has been translated into Tonga and Sepedi, both in 1888. Tripoli: A possession of Turkey on the north coast of Africa west of Egypt. It extends southward to the Sahara and includes the oasis of the Fezzan, but its southern limits are indefinite. This territory was seized by Turkey in the sixteenth century. Area about 400,000 sq. miles; population about 1,000,000, chiefly Berbers. There are about 6,000 Europeans (Maltese and Italians), who are mainly Roman Catholics; and there are also about 10,000 Jews. There is an extensive caravan trade with the Sudan and Timbuctoo; and the slavetrade is quietly fostered by this means. The only Protestant mission in Tripoli is that of the North Africa Mission, which has 1 station with 4 missionaries, a hospital, and 2 dispensaries. Arabic and Kabyle are the languages of the country. Tunis: A French protectorate on the northern coast of Africa lying between Tripoli and Algeria. Area about 51,000 sq. miles; population (estimated) 1,900,000, mainly Berbers and Arabs, with a foreign population (1901) of 39,000 French, 67,500 Italians, and 12,000 Maltese. The Tunisian ruler, called the Bey, is from a family which has been in power since 1575, and governs the country under the control of a French resident. The Roman Catholic Church in Tunis is under direction of the archbishop of Carthage, the see having been restored in 1884. There are 53 priests, 2 bishops, and several schools. Tunis was the scene of some of Raymond Lully's efforts to convert Mohammedans in the thirteenth century. Protestant missions are carried on in Tunis by the North African Mission, the Swedish Young Women's Christian Association, and the London Jews Society. Together these societies have 5 schools, 2 hospitals or dispensaries, and about 250 persons under instruction. Arabic is the prevailing language. Uganda: A British protectorate in East Central Africa, lying between the Egyptian Sudan on the north, German East Africa on the south, British East Africa on the east, and the Kongo Independent State on the west. Within its boundaries lie part of the Victoria Nyanza and lakes Albert and Albert Edward. It comprises the native kingdom of Uganda and several smaller districts ruled by native kinglets under British control. Area 89,400 sq. miles; population about 4,000,000, of whom about 1,000,000 are in the kingdom of Uganda. The religious divisions of the population in the whole protectorate are: pagans, 3,500,000; Mohammedans, 50,000; Roman Catholics, 146,000; and Protestants, 250,000. A railway connects Mombasa on the coast of British East Africa with Kisumu, formerly called Port Florence, on the Victoria Nyanza. The seat of the British administration is Entebbe, and that of the kingdom of Uganda is Mengo. Henry M. Stanley visited Uganda in 1875, and found the king Mutesa a recent convert to Islam but inclined to ask questions on the religion of the Christians. He gave the king some instruction and had the Lord's Prayer translated for him into Suahili written in Arabic characters. At this time Uganda was like any other African kingdom a place of superstition, degradation of women, and bloodthirsty cruelty and oppression. Stanley was really the first of Christian missionaries there; for the slight teachings that he gave the king were not forgotten, and his translation of the Lord's Prayer was copied and recopied. On leaving Uganda Stanley wrote a letter to the London Telegraph describing Uganda and the willingness of King Mutesa to receive Christian instruction. He then addressed the missionary societies in these words: "Here, gentlemen, is your opportunity. The people on the shores of the Nyanza call upon you." This challenge was at once taken up by the Church Missionary Society; and in 1876 its first missionaries reached Uganda. The first converts were baptized in 1882, and persecution soon set in, when a number of the Christians were burned alive. Alexander Mackay, a layman and a member of the mission, was a man of indomitable energy and wonderful devotion; and upon him rested to a great degree the responsibility for the defense of the mission. Several of the missionaries were murdered, including Bishop James Hannington (1885), by order of King Mwanga, Mutesa's successor. Roman Catholic missionaries appeared on the scene; and quarrels and strife ensued between the two denominations. Mohammedans also intervened, trying to profit by the dissensions between the Christians. The British protectorate was declared in 1894. In 1897 the Sudanese troops in British employ revolted and attempted to seize the country in the Mohammedan interest. The valor of the Christians weighed largely in deciding this fierce little war against the mutineers. In it George Laurence Pilkington, a notable lay missionary lost his life. With the defeat of the mutineers and the assignment of the Mohammedans to separate reservations peace was finally established, and the whole protectorate is in a prosperous condition. The Church Missionary Society has now in the protectorate 90 missionaries (men and women), 2,500 native workers, 170 schools with 22,229 scholars, and 53,000 baptized Christians. It had established a considerable industrial enterprise for the development of the people; but in 1904 this department of its work was turned over to the Uganda Company, a commercial body chartered in England to develop the country. The Roman Catholic missions were established by the Algiers Society for African Missions. There are now 88 stations and about 80,000 baptized Roman Catholic Christians. At Kaimosi, about twenty-five miles north of Port Florence, is a mission of the American Society of Friends, which is instructing the people in various industries. Altogether Uganda is after thirty years of missionary labor a remarkable instance of the change in a people which can be produced by the attempt to follow the principles of the Bible. The overthrow of barbarism in the native customs was effected before any outside political forces entered upon the scene. The Bible has been translated into Ugandan (1888), and Gospels have been rendered into Nyoro and Toro. III. African Islands: Annobon. See [128]Fernando Po. Canary Islands: A group of islands lying north-west of Africa and belonging to Spain, of which they form a province. Area 2,807 sq. miles; population 358,564, reckoned as entirely Roman Catholic, the first Roman Catholic see having been erected here in 1404. Cape Verde Islands: A group of fourteen islands lying off the west coast of Africa and belonging to Portugal. Area 1,480 sq. miles; population (1900) 147,424, of whom about two-thirds are negroes and nearly one-third of mixed blood. The religion is Roman Catholic. Comoro Isles: A group of small islands about half way between Madagascar and the African coast. Area 620 sq. miles; population about 47,000, chiefly Mohammedans. The islands are ecclesiastically under the jurisdiction of Mayotte, but it does not appear that any mission exists upon them. Corisco. See [129]Fernando Po. Fernando Po, Annobon, Corisco, and Elobey: Islands in the Gulf of Guinea, belonging to Spain. The area of these islands taken together is about 780 sq. miles; population 22,000. Roman Catholic missions are carried on in the islands by the Spanish Congregation of the Sacred Heart of Mary. Nineteen clergy are reported in Fernando Po, with about 4,000 Roman Catholics. There is a Protestant mission in Fernando Po, established by the Primitive Methodist Missionary Society in 1870, a mission established by the Baptist Missionary Society of England having been driven from the country by Spanish intolerance a number of years before. One of the Gospels was translated into Adiya, a dialect of Fernando Po, in 1846. It is now obsolete. There is a station of the American Presbyterian Church on the island of Corisco (see above, under [130]Rio Muni). Madagascar: An island off the southeastern coast of Africa, from which it is separated by the Mozambique Channel at a distance of 240 miles, measuring between nearest points. It is 980 miles long, and 360 miles in its greatest breadth. It is a possession of France, whose claim dates from a concession made to a trading company by the king of France in 1642. The claim was not recognized by the native rulers. After a struggle lasting intermittently from 1882 to 1896 the formal annexation to France took place. Area 224,000 sq. miles; population (1901) 3,000,000, including 15,000 Europeans and some hundreds of Africans and Asiatics. The people are of Malay stock with an infusion of African blood. The principal tribe, which ruled the larger part of the island until the French occupation, is called Hova. Sakalava, Betsileo, and Sihanaka are the names of other important tribes. The history of Madagascar during many years is connected with the story of its evangelization through the London Missionary Society, beginning in 1818. The mission had great success during fifteen years. The language was reduced to writing; schools were established; the New Testament was translated and printed; and numbers of the people professed Christianity. In 1835 the reigning queen drove out the missionaries and proscribed Christianity. After bloody persecutions it was made a capital crime to profess the religion of Christ. This proscription ended in 1861; the missionaries returned; and in 1868 the then queen made public profession of Christianity. At the time of the French occupation there were about 450,000 Protestants and 50,000 Roman Catholics in the island. Roman Catholic missions were commenced in Madagascar in 1844, having their center in the island of Nossi-Bé and the adjacent islands until 1850, when the care of the missions was entrusted to the Jesuits. There are now 348 Roman Catholic mission stations in the island with nearly 100,000 adherents. At the time of the French occupation the Protestant missions were looked upon with great suspicion. In anticipation of being obliged to withdraw from the islands, the London Missionary Society invited the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society to take over some of its stations. After a period of misunderstanding and friction with the Jesuit missionaries, religious liberty was made effective, and difficulties have gradually been removed. The Protestant societies now laboring in the island are: the London Missionary Society (1818), the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (1843), the Friends Foreign Missionary Association (1867), the Norwegian Society (1867), the United Norwegian Lutheran Church in America (1892), the (Free) Lutheran Board of Missions (U. S. A., 1895), and the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society (1896). These societies together report 196 missionaries, 4,914 native workers, 2,729 schools with 133,262 pupils, and about 200,000 baptized Christians. The effect of the French school laws may probably affect the higher missionary schools; but on the whole conditions are rapidly taking a satisfactory form. The Bible was translated into Malagasy in 1835 and revised in 1886. Madeira: An island forming a province of Portugal and lying west of North Africa. Area 505 sq. miles; population 150,574. The island was colonized by the Portuguese in 1420, and has been Roman Catholic for two centuries, the ancient inhabitants being entirely extinct. The American Methodist Episcopal Church has a mission in Madeira. Mauritius: An island colony of Great Britain, lying in the Indian Ocean 500 miles east of Madagascar. Area 705 sq. miles; population (1901) 378,195. The religious classification under the census of 1901 was as follows: Hindus, 206,131; Mohammedans, 41,208; Roman Catholics, 113,224; Protestants, 6,644. Besides the parish priests there are 6 Jesuit missionaries and 11 from the Congregation of the Holy Ghost and the Sacred Heart of Mary. Protestant missions are carried on by the Church Missionary Society, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and the Church of England Zenana Missionary Society. A large section of the population is of African or mixed blood, and the number of Chinese in business in the island is increasing. Mayotte: An island belonging to France, situated between Madagascar and the African coast. It is under the governor of Reunion. Area 140 sq. miles; population 11,640, which is diminishing. There are 6 Roman Catholic priests and about 3,000 Roman Catholics in the island. Reunion: An island belonging to France, situated about 420 miles east of Madagascar. Area, 945 sq. miles; population (1902) 173,395, of whom 13,492 are British Indians, 4,496 are natives of Madagascar, 9,457 are Africans, and 1,378 are Chinese. The rest of the inhabitants are reckoned as Roman Catholics. The island is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, and it forms a part of the ecclesiastical province of Bordeaux in France. Saint Thomas (Thomé) and Principe: Two islands in the Gulf of Guinea, belonging to Portugal, of which they are reckoned as a province. Area 360 sq. miles; population (1900) 42,000, of whom 41,000 are negroes. These islands are a source of revenue to the Portuguese government, producing quantities of coffee, cocoa, and cinchona. The products are cultivated by slave labor still imported by the Portuguese "under contract" through Angola from central Africa. About 4,000 of these "laborers" are carried to the islands every year; and it is said that none return. A Roman Catholic diocese was established in these islands in 1584, and a large part of the population is reckoned as Roman Catholic. There are no Protestant missions in this colony. Zanzibar: See [131]British East Africa Protectorate, above. Henry Otis Dwight. [2] Bibliography: I. Collections of titles: J. Gay, Bibliographie des ouvrages relatifs à l'Afrique et à l'Arabie, San Remo, 1875; P. Paulitschke, Die Afrika-Literatur in den Zeit 1500-1750, Vienna, 1882; G. Kayser, Bibliographie de l'Afrique, Brussels, 1889. Geography and Atlases: P. Paulitschke, Die geographische Erforschung des afrikanischen Continents, Vienna, 1880; idem, Die geographische Erforschung der Adal-Länder in Ost-Afrika, Leipsic, 1884; A. H. Keane, Africa, 2 vols., London, 1895 (a compend); A. Poskin, L'Afrique équatoriale. Climatologie, nosologie, hygiène, Paris, 1897 (the one book on the subject); R. Grundemann, Neuer Missions-Atlas, Stuttgart, 1896 (German missions only); K. Heilmann, Missionskarte der Erde, Gütersloh, 1897; H. P. Beach, Geography and Atlas of Protestant Missions, New York, 1903. Ethnology: T. Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvölker, vol. ii., Leipsic, 1860; R. Hartmann, Die Nigritier, Berlin, 1877 (argues for unity of African peoples); idem, Die Völker Afrikas, Leipsic, 1879; H. Spencer, Descriptive Sociology, part iv., African Races, London, 1882; A. Featherman, Social History of the Races of Mankind: Nigritians, ib. 1885; F. Ratzel, Völkerkunde, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1886-88, Eng. transl., History of Mankind, London, 1896-97; Natives of South Africa, London, 1901. Languages: R. N. Cust, A Sketch of the Modern Languages of Africa, 2 vols., ib. 1883 (by a master); C. R. Lepsius, Nubische Grammatik mit einer Einleitung über die Völker und Sprachen Afrikas, Berlin, 1880. Exploration: D. Livingstone, Travels and Researches in South Africa, London, 1857; J. H. Speke, Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile, ib. 1863; R. F. Burton, Wanderings in West Africa, 2 vols., ib. 1864; H. M. Stanley, How I Found Livingstone, ib. 1874; idem, In Darkest Africa, ib. 1874; V. L. Cameron, Across Africa, ib. 1877; C. E. Bourne, Heroes of African Discovery, 2 vols., ib. 1882; K. Dove, Vom Kap zum Nil, Berlin, 1898; J. Bryce, Impressions of South Africa, with three maps, London, 1899; C. A. von Götsen, Durch Afrika von Ost nach West, Berlin, 1899; A. B. Lloyd, In Dwarf Land and Cannibal Country, London, 1899; L. Lanier, L'Afrique, Paris, 1899 (geographical, historical, bibliographical); P. B. du Chaillu, In African Forest and Jungle, New York, 1903; A. H. Keane, South Africa. A Compendium of Geography and Travel, London, 1904. African partition and colonization: J. S. Keltie, The Partition of Africa, 21 maps, London, 1893 (excellent, succinct); Holub, Die Colonization Afrikas, Vienna, 1882; H. H. Johnston, History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races, in Cambridge Historical Series, Cambridge, 1894; H. M. Stanley, Africa; Its Partition and Its Future, New York, 1898. Missions: D. Macdonald, Africana: Heathen Africa, 2 vols., London, 1882; R. Lovett, History of the London Missionary Society,1795-1895,, 2 vols., ib. 1899; F. P. Noble, Redemption of Africa, New York, 1899; E. Stock, History of the Church Missionary Society, 3 vols., London, 1899; Ecumenical Missionary Conference, New York, 1900, Reports, New York, 1900; C. F. Pascoe, Two Hundred Years of the SPG, London, 1901; J. Stewart, Dawn in the Dark Continent; or Africa and its Missions, ib. 1903; H. O. Dwight, H. A. Tupper, E. M. Bliss, Encyclopedia of Missions, New York, 1904. Catholic Missions: M. de Montroud, Les Missions catholiques dans les parties du Monde, Paris, 1869; L. Bethune, Les Missions catholiques d'Afrique, ib. 1889; O. Werner, Orbis terrarum catholicus, Freiburg, 1890 (geographical and statistical); Missiones Catholicæ, Rome, 1901. Native religion: T. Hahn, Tsuni-Ggoam, the Supreme Being of the Ghoi-Ghoi, London, 1882; A. B. Ellis, Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast, ib. 1887; W. Schneider, Die Religion der afrikanischen Naturvölker, Münster, 1891; J. Macdonald, Religion and Myth, London, 1893 (on religion and society); M. A. Kingsley, Travels in West Africa, ib. 1897; idem, West African Studies, ib. 1901; R. H. Nassau, Fetichism in West Africa, New York, 1904 (covers native religion and society). II. Algeria: R. L. Playfair, Bibliography of Algeria, London, 1888 (covers 1541-1887); A. Certeux and E. H. Carnoy, L'Algérie traditionnelle, 3 vols., Algiers, 1884 (on customs and superstitions); Gastu, Le Peuple Algérien, Paris, 1884; R. L. Playfair, The Scourge of Christendom: Annals of British Relations with Algeria, London, 1884; E. C. E. Villot, Mæurs et institutions des indigènes de l'Algérie, Algiers, 1888; F. A. Bridgman, Winters in Algeria, New York, 1890; F. Klein, Les Villages d'Arabes chrétiens, Fontainebleau, 1890; A. E. Pease, Biskra and the Oases . . . of the Zihans, London, 1893; J. Lionel, Races Berbères, Paris, 1893; A. Wilkin, Among the Berbers of Algeria, London, 1900. Angola: J. J. Monteiro, Angola and the River Congo, 2 vols., London, 1895 (the one book); F. A. Pinto, Angola e Congo, Lisbon, 1888; H. Chatelain, Folk-Tales of Angola, Boston, 1894. Basutoland: J. Widdicombe, Fourteen Years in Basutoland, London, 1892; E. Cosalis, My Life in Basutoland, ib. 1889; Mrs. Barkly, Among Boers and Basutos, ib. 1893; E. Jacottet, Contes populaires des Bassoutos, Paris, 1895; M. Martin, Basutoland; Its Legends and Customs, London, 1903. Bechuanaland: L. K. Bruce, The Story of an African Chief, Khama, London, 1893; E. Lloyd, Three African Chiefs, Khamé, Sebelé, and Barthæng, ib. 1895; J. D. Hepburn, Twenty Years in Khama's Country and the Batauna, ib. 1895; W. D. Mackenzie, John Mackenzie, South African Missionary and Statesman, ib. 1902. British East Africa and Zanzibar: J. Thomson, Through Masai Land, London, 1885; Handbook of British East Africa including Zanzibar, ib. 1893 (English official publication); H. S. Newman, Banani: the Transition from Slavery to Freedom in Zanzibar, ib. 1899; S. T. and H. Hinde, Last of the Masai, ib. 1901. Cape Colony: G. McC. Theall, History of South Africa, 4 vols., London, 1888-89 (exhaustive); E. Holub, Seven Years in South Africa, ib. 1881; A. Wilmot, Story of the Expansion of South Africa, ib. 1895; A. T. Wirgman, History of the English Church in South Africa, ib. 1895; South African Year Book for 1902-3, ib. 1902 (official); J. Stewart, Dawn in the Dark Continent, ib. 1903; H. A. Bryden, History of South Africa, 1652-1903, ib. 1904; D. Kidd, The Essential Kafir, ib. 1904. Central Africa Protectorate: H. H. Johnston, British Central Africa, London, 1897; J. Buchanan, The Shiré Highlands as Colony and Mission, ib. 1885; D. J. Rankin, Zambesi Basin and Nyassaland, ib. 1893; A. E. M. Morshead, History of the Universities Mission to Central Africa, ib. 1897; W. A. Elmalie, Among the Wild Ngomi, Chapters . . . of Livingstonia Mission, ib. 1899; J. W. Jack, Daybreak in Livingstonia, New York, 1901. Dahomey. A. Pawlowski, Bibliographie raisonnée . . . concernant le Dahomey, Paris, 1895; Aspe-Fleurimont, La Guinée francaise, ib. 1890; E. F. Forbes, Dahomey and the Dahomeans, 2 vols., London, 1851; J. A. Skertchley, Dahomey as it is, ib. 1874, A. L. d'Albéca, La France au Dahomey, Paris, 1895; E. Foa, Le Dahomey, ib. 1895 (on history, geography, customs, etc.); R. S. Powell, The Downfall of Prempeh, London, 1896. Egypt (for missions): G. Lansing, Egypt's Princes. A Narrative of Missionary Labor in the Valley of the Nile, New York, 1865; M. L. Whately, Ragged Life in Egypt, London, 1870; idem, Among the Huts in Egypt, ib. 1870; A. Watson, The American Mission in Egypt, Pittsburg, 1898; M. Fowler, Christian Egypt, London, 1900; and see [132]Egypt. Erìtrea: La Colonia Erîtrea, Turin, 1891; E. Q. M. Alamanni, L'Aveñire della colonia Eritrea, Asti, 1890; M. Schveller, Mitteilungen über meine Reise in . . . Eritrea, Berlin, 1895. French Kongo: A. J. Wauters and A. Buyl, Bibliographie du Congo, 1880-95, Paris, 1895 (3,800 titles); P. Eucher, Le Congo, essai sur t histoire religisuse, ib. 1895; A. Voulgre, Le Loango et la vallée du Kouilou, ib. 1897; and see below [133]Kongo. French Guinea: L. G. Binger, Du Niger au golfe de Guinée, 2 vols., Paris, 1891; C. Madrolle, En Guinée, ib. 1894; P. d'Espagnat, Joura de Guinée, ib. 1898. German Africa: Deutsch-Ost-Afrika, Wissenschaftlicher Forschungaresultate über Land und Leute, Berlin, 1893 and later (exhaustive); P. Reichard, Deutsch-Ostafrika, Land and Bewohner, Leipsic, 1892; H. von Schweinitz, Deutsch-Ost-Afrika in Krieg und Frieden, Berlin, 1894; Ch. Römer, Kamerun; Land, Leute und Mission, Basel, 1895; E. Zintgraff, Nord-Kamerun, 1886-92, Berlin, 1895; F. J. van Bülow, Deutsch-Südwestafrika . . . Land und Leute, ib. 1897; K. Hörhold, Drei Jahre under deutsche Flagge in Hinterland von Kamerun, ib.1897; M. Dier, Unter den Schwarzen, Steyl, 1901 (missionary); F. Hutter, Wanderungen und Forschungen in Nord-Hinterland von Kamerun, Brunswick, 1902; and see below, [134]Kamerun. Gold Coast: A. B. Ellis, History of the Gold Coast, London, 1893; F. A. Ramseyer and J. Kühne, Four Years in Ashantee, New York, 1877 (missionary); C. Buhl, Die Basler Mission an der Goldküste, Basel, 1882; C. C. Reindorf, History of the Gold Coast and Ashanti from c. 1500, London, 1895; G. Macdonald, Gold Coast, Past and Present, ib. 1898; D. Kemp, Nine Years at the Gold Coast, ib. 1898. Ivory Coast: Bonnesu, La Côte d'Ivoire, Paris, 1899 (historical and geographical); M. Mounier, France noire, Côte d'Ivoire et Soudan, ib. 1894. Kamerun: In G. Warneck, History of Protestant Missions, transl. from seventh Germ. ed., London, 1901; E. B. Underhill, Alfred Saker, Missionary to Africa, ib. 1884; and see above, [135]German Africa. Kongo Independent State: H. M. Stanley, Congo and the Founding of the Free State, 2 vols., London, 1878; W. H. Bentley, Life on the Congo, ib. 1890; idem, Pioneering on the Congo, 2 vols., New York, 1903; Mrs. H. G. Guinness, The New World of Central Africa; the Congo, London, 1890; F. S. Arnot, Garenganze; or Seven Years' Pioneer Mission Work in Central Afrika, ib. 1889; idem, Bihe and Garenganze, ib.1893; S. P. Verner, Pioneering in Central Africa, New York, 1903; E. Morel, King Leopold's Rule in Africa, London, 1904. Lagos: R. F. Burton, Abeokuta and the Cameroon Mountains, 2 vols., London, 1863; Miss C. Tucker, Abbeokuta: the Yoruba Mission, ib. 1858; J. A. O. Payne, Table of Events in Yoruba History, Lagos, 1893. Liberia: J. H. T. McPherson, African Colonization: History of Liberia (Johns Hopkins University Studies, series 9, No. 10), Baltimore, 1891; G. S. Stockwell, The Republic of Liberia, New York, 1868 (historical and geographical); J. Buettikofer, Reisebilder aus Liberia, Leyden, 1890; F. A. Durham, The Lone Star of Liberia, London, 1892; E. W. Blyden, A Chapter in the History of Liberia, Freetown, 1892. Morocco: R. L. Playfair and R. Brown, Bibliography of Morocco . . . to end of 1891, London, 1893; R. Kerr, Pioneering in Morocco; Seven Years' Medical Mission Work, ib. 1894; E. de Amicis, Morocco, Its People and·Places, New York, 1892; W. B. Harris, The Land of an African Sultan, London, 1879; Géographie générale de Maroc, Paris, 1902; A. J. Dawson, Things Seen in Morocco, London, 1904; Morocco Painted by A. S. Forrest and described by S. L. Bensusan, ib. 1904. Natal: R. Russell, Natal, the Land and Its Story, London, 1900; L. Groat, Zululand, or Life among the Zulu-Kafirs, Philadelphia, 1864; H. Brooks, The Colony of Natal, London, 1870; T. B. Jenkinson, Amazulu, the Zulus, ib. 1882 (on people and country); J. Bird, Annals of Natal, 2 vols., Pietermaritzburg, 1888-89; J. Tyler, Forty Years among the Zulus, Boston, 1891; F. W. van Wernedorff, Ein Jahr in Rhodesia, Berlin, 1899; J. Robinson, A Lifetime in South Africa, London, 1900. Nigeria: C. H. Robinson, Hausaland, London, 1897; idem, Nigeria, 1900 (both authoritative); H. Goldie, Calabar and Its Mission, ib. 1890; R. H. Bacon, Benin, the City of Blood, ib. 1897; H. Bindloss, In the Niger County, ib. 1899; W. R. Miller, Hausa Notes, ib. 1901. Orange River Colony: South African Republic, Official Documents, Philadelphia, 1900; G. McC. Theal, The Boers, or Emigrant Farmers, London, 1888; A. H. Keane, Africa, in E. Stanford's Compendium of Geography, 2 vols., ib. 1893; H. Cloete, History of the Great Boer Trek, and the Origin of the South African Republics, ib. 1899. Portuguese Africa: W. B. Warfield, Portuguese Nyassaland, London, 1899; R. Monteiro, Delagoa Bay, Its Natives and Natural History, ib. 1891; P. Gillmore, Through Gaza Land, ib. 1891; J. P. M. Weale, Truth about the Portuguese in Africa, ib. 1891. Rhodesia: H. Hensman, History of Rhodesia, London, 1900; E. F. Knight, Rhodesia of To-day; Condition and Prospects of Matabeleland and Mashonaland, ib. 1895; A. G. Leonard, How we Made Rhodesia, ib. 1896; A. Boggie, History of Rhodesia and the Matabele, ib. 1897; S. J. Du Toit, Rhodesia Past and Present, ib. 1897; H. L. Tangye, In New South Africa; . . . Transvaal and Rhodesia, ib. 1900. Sierra Leone: J. J. Crooks, History of the Colony of Sierra Leone, London, 1903; D. K. Flickinger, Ethiopia, or Twenty Years of Mission Work in Western Africa, Dayton, 1877; E. G. Ingham, Sierra Leone after One Hundred Years, London, 1894; T. J. Alldridge, The Sherbro and its Hinterland, ib. 1901; C. George, The Rise of British West Africa, ib. 1904. Somaliland: H. L. Swayne, Seventeen Trips through Somaliland, London, 1903; C. V. A. Peel, Somaliland . . . Two Expeditions into the Far Interior, ib. 1903; F. S. Brereton, In the Grip of the Mullah, ib. 1903. Sudan: A. S. White, Expansion of Egypt under Anglo-Egyptian Condominion, New York, 1900; C. T. Wilson and R. W. Felkin, Uganda und der ägyptische Sudan, 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1883; Slatin Pasha, Fire and Sword in the Sudan, London, 1896; D. C. Boulger, Life of Gordon, ib. 1897; H. S. Alford and W. D. Sword, The Egyptian Sudan, Its Loss and Its Recovery, ib. 1898; H. H. Austin, Among Swamps and Giants in Equatorial Africa, ib.1902. Transvaal: E. Farmer, Transvaal as a Mission Field, London, 1903; W. C. Willoughby, Native Life on the Transvaal Border, ib. 1900; J. H. Bovill, Natives under the Transvaal Flag, ib. 1900; D. M. Wilson, Behind the Scenes in the Transvaal, ib. 1901. Tripoli and Tunis: G. E. Thompson, Life in Tripoli, London, 1893; De H. Wartegg, Tunis, Land and People, ib. 1899; M. Fournel, La Tunisie; le christianisme et l'islam dans l'Afrique septentrionale, Paris, 1886; V. Guerin, La France catholique en Tunisie . . . et en Tripolitaine, ib. 1886; A. Perry, Official Tour along the Eastern Coast of . . . Tunis, Providence, 1891; D. Bruun, The Cave Dwellers of Southern Tunisia, Edinburgh, 1898; H. Vivian, Tunisia and the Modern Barbary Pirates, London, 1899; J. L. Cathcart, Tripoli; First War with the United States, La Porte, 1902. Uganda: H. H. Johnston, Uganda Protectorate, London, 1904; W. J. Ansorge, Under the African Sun: A Description of Native Races in Uganda, ib. 1899; Mackay of Uganda; Story of his Life by his Sister, ib. 1899; R. P. Ashe, Two Kings of Uganda; or Life by the Shores of Victoria Nyanza, ib. 1890 (missionary); S. G. Stock, Uganda and Victoria Nyanza Mission, ib. 1892; F. J. Lugard, Rise of our East African Empire, . . . Nyassaland and Uganda, 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1893; idem, Story of the Uganda Protectorate, London, 1900; C. F. Harford-Battersby, Pilkington of Uganda, ib. 1899; A. R. Cook, A Doctor and his Dog in Uganda, ib. 1903 (on medical missions). III. African Islands: Madagascar: J. Sibree, The Great African Island, London, 1879 (the best book); idem, Madagascar before the Conquest, ib. 1896; W. Ellis, The Martyr Church, ib. 1869; W. E. Cousins, The Madagascar of To-day, ib. 1895; H. Hansen, Beitrag zur Geschichte der Insel Madagaskar, Gütersloh, 1899; J. J. K. Fletcher, Sign of the Cross in Madagascar, London, 1901; T. T. Matthews, Thirty Years in Madagascar, ib. 1904. Other Islands: A. B. Ellis, The West African Islands, London, 1885; C. Keller, Madagascar, Mauritius, and other African Islands, ib. 1900; N. Pike, Subtropical Rambles in the Land of the Aphanapteryx, ib. 1873 (on Mauritius); J. C. Mellis, St. Helena, ib. 1875 (scientific); H. W. Estridge, Six Years in Seychelles, ib. 1885; A. S. Brown, Madeira and the Canary Isles, ib. 1890. Africa, the Church of AFRICA, THE CHURCH OF. See [136]Abyssinia and the Abyssinian Church; [137]Coptic Church; [138]Egypt; [139]Missions, Roman Catholic, Protestant; [140]North African Church. African Methodist Episcopal Church AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH. See [141]Methodists. Africanus, Julius AFRICANUS, JULIUS. See [142]Julius Africanus. Agape AGAPE, ag´?-pî or -pê Primitive Form of Celebration (§ 1). Final Form of the Agape (§ 2). Disassociation of Agape and Eucharist (§ 3). 1. Primitive Form of Celebration. The Greek word agape ("love," pl. agapai, Lat. agapæ) was used in the early Church, both Greek and Latin, to denote definite manifestations of brotherly love between believers, and particularly certain meals taken in common which had more or less of a religious character. The earliest mention of such meals is found in Jude 12 (possibly in II Pet. ii. 13). Distinct history begins with Tertullian, in the passage (Apologeticus, xxxix.) commencing: "Our supper bears a name which tells exactly what it is; it is called by the word which in Greek means affection.'" The agape served for the refreshment of the poorer brethren, as well as for the general edification. It was opened and closed with prayer, and after its conclusion one and another gave songs of praise, either from the Bible or of their own composition. These meetings were under the direction of the clergy, to whom (with reference to I Tim. v. 17) a double portion of food and drink was allotted. They were held at the time of the principal meal, and frequently were prolonged until dark. In the period for which Tertullian bears witness, they were not connected with the sacrament of the Eucharist; he says expressly (De corona, iii.) that the Lord instituted the sacrament on the occasion of a meal, while the Church does not so celebrate it, but rather before daybreak. Even apart from the secret nocturnal services of the times of persecution and the observance of the paschal vigil, the Eucharist was regularly celebrated before any meal. Notably was this rule, which is found referred to in Cyprian (Epist., lxiii. 16), established in Tertullian's time, but--which is decisive for the distinction between Eucharist and agape--it existed in many parts of the Church as early as that of Justin (Apologia, i. 65, 67). The principle, that the Eucharist should be received only fasting, which would exclude any relation with a preceding common meal, and especially with the agape, taking place toward evening, is indirectly evidenced by Tertullian (Ad uxorem, ii. 5); Augustine found it so universally recognized that he was inclined to refer it to one of the ordinances promised by Paul in I Cor. xi. 34; and Chrysostom was so convinced of the antiquity of the rule that he supposed the custom of following it by an ordinary meal to have prevailed in Corinth in Paul's time. In any case, in the third and fourth centuries the development of the agape was more and more away from any connection with public worship. 2. Final Form of the Agape. From the indications of the Syriac Didascalia and the Egyptian liturgical books, as well as the canons of the Councils of Gangra and Laodicea it may be inferred that the giving of these feasts and the inviting to them of widows and the poor was, in the East, one of the forms usually taken by the benevolence of the wealthier members of the Church. The bishop and other clergy were invited, and, if they appeared, were received with special honor and charged with the direction of the assembly. These feasts were given at irregular times and in various places, sometimes in the church itself. This was forbidden by the twenty-eighth canon of Laodicea, at the same time that the fifty-eighth prohibited their celebration in private houses. Secular festivities in connection with the agapæ, which brought upon them the condemnation of the ascetic Eustathians (against whom the Council of Gangra defended them), caused them to be regarded more and more among the orthodox also as incompatible with the dignity of divine worship, so that they gradually became entirely separate from it, and thus tended to fall into disuse. How popular these feasts were in Africa, in the churches, in the chapels of the martyrs, and at the graves of other Christians, may be seen from the often renewed canon of Hippo (393), which forbids clerics to eat in churches except in dispensing hospitality to travelers, and commands them as far as possible to restrain the people from such meals. The same thing appears in Augustine's descriptions as well as in the great pains he took to repress grave abuses and, with reference to the practise of the Italian and almost all the other churches, to suppress the agapæ altogether. 3. Disassociation of Agape and Eucharist. It is not clear what caused the disassociation of the agape from the Eucharist in the first half of the second century. It is a misunderstanding of Pliny's letter to Trajan (Epist., xcvi.) to suppose that in consequence of the prohibition of hetæriæ ("brotherhoods") the Christians then abandoned their evening feasts and transferred the Eucharist to the morning; but it is very probable that the constant accusation of impious customs which recalled the stories of Thyestes and of OEdipus were the main reason for the separation of the Eucharist, which was an essential part of their public worship, from the connection, so liable to be misunderstood, with an evening meal participated in by both sexes and all ages. The fact that at one time the two were connected is evidenced not only by Pliny, but about the same time by the Didache, in which, whatever one may think about the relation of the eucharistic prayers to the accompanying liturgical acts (chaps. ix-x.), the opening passage of the second prayer (Gk. meta de to emplesthenai) shows that a full meal belonged to the rite there referred to. Just as here the Greek word eucharistia, which from Justin down is employed as a technical term for the sacrament, at least includes a common meal, which is found separated from the sacrament after the middle of the second century, so Ignatius, with whom eucharistia is a usual designation of the sacrament, also employs agape and agapan to denote the same observance. It is accordingly safe to conclude that in the churches, from Antioch to Rome, with which Ignatius had to do, the so-called agape was connected with the Eucharist, as Pliny shows at the same time for Bithynia and the Didache for Alexandria. The same may be inferred of the two Scriptural passages cited above; and one is led further back by I Cor. xi. 17-34. While Paul distinguishes as sharply as possible the eating of the one bread and the drinking of the blessed chalice from common food and drink (I Cor. x. 3, 16; xi. 23-29), he shows at the same time that in Corinth the two were connected in thought. While he rebukes the disorder of one drinking too much and another going hungry, so as to injure the dignity of the following sacrament, and lays down that eating for the mere satisfaction of hunger ought to take place at home and not in the assembly of the brethren, he is not disposed (as I Cor. xi. 33 shows) to abolish altogether the connection of the sacrament with an actual meal. This connection, then, existing into the first decades of the second century, forms the basis of the history for both Eucharist and agape which diverge from that time on. (T. Zahn.) The agape or love-feast is practised at present by Mennonites, Dunkards, German Baptists of the Anglo-American type, and other religious bodies. For an able, but not wholly successful, attempt to prove that the Lord's Supper in the apostolic time was identical with the agape, i.e., that it was nothing but a social feast for the manifestation of brotherly love, consult Norman Fox, Christ in the Daily Meal (New York, 1898). (A. H. N.) Bibliography: See [143]Lord's Supper. Agapetus AGAPETUS, ag´´a-pî´tus: The name of two popes. Agapetus I.: Pope 535-536. He was the son of a Roman priest named Gordianus, who had been killed in the disturbances under Symmachus. Six days after the death of John II. he was chosen to succeed him, probably by the wish of Theodahad, king of the Ostrogoths. He began his pontificate by reconciling the contending factions among the Roman clergy and annulling the anathema pronounced by Boniface II. against the antipope Dioscorus. His decision, induced by the decrees of the North African synod, forbidding the entrance of converted Arians to the priesthood, and his defense of this measure in a letter to the emperor Justinian show him to have been a zealous upholder of orthodoxy. In 536 he was sent to Constantinople by Theodahad to try to establish peace with the emperor, and was obliged to pledge the sacred vessels of the Roman Church to obtain money for his journey. He did not succeed in the ostensible purpose of his mission, but accomplished more for the orthodox cause. Anthimus, patriarch of Constantinople, a secret adherent of Monophysitism, had, by the aid of the empress Theodora, the patroness of the Monophysites, been allowed, in defiance of the canons, to exchange the see of Trapezus (Trebizond) for the patriarchal throne. Agapetus refused all communion with him, and persisted so strenuously in his attitude, in spite of threats from the court, that he finally convinced Justinian that Anthimus had deceived him, and had him deposed, and replaced by Mennas. Agapetus himself consecrated Mennas by wish of the emperor, and apparently with the assent of the principal orthodox Eastern bishops, after he had presented a confession of faith which the pope considered satisfactory. The emperor, fearing lest he himself should be accused of sympathy with the former Monophysite patriarch, placed a confession of faith in the pope's hands, which Agapetus approved in a letter plainly showing how important he felt his triumph to be. Almost immediately afterward he fell ill and died in Constantinople Apr. 22, 536, his body being brought to Rome and buried in St. Peter's. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Epistolæ, in MGH, Epist., iii. (1891) 54-57, in MPL, lxvi., and in Jaffé, Regesta, i. 113-115; Liber Pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, i. 287-289, Paris, 1886; ASB, vi. 163-180; Bower, Popes, i. 337-344; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, Eng. transl., iv. 181-194. Agapetus II.: Pope 946-955. He was a Roman by birth, and, like his predecessor Marinus II. owed his elevation to the papal throne (May 10, 946) to Alberic, the secular master of Rome. Though hampered at home by Alberic's power, he asserted the claims of his see successfully abroad. He intervened in the prolonged contest over the archbishopric of Reims, from which Heribert of Vermandois had expelled the legitimate incumbent, Artold, to give it to his own son Hugh. The contest between the friends of the two prelates attained the dimensions of a civil war, Artold being supported by Louis IV. of France. Agapetus also took Artold's side at first; but he was deceived by the representations of a cleric from Reims into reversing his decision. After Artold had succeeded in enlightening him, the affair was referred to a synod held at Ingelheim in 948, whose final verdict in favor of Artold was confirmed by Agapetus in a Roman synod (949). [When Berengar II., Marquis of Ivrea, attempted to unite all Italy under his scepter, the pope and other Italian princes appealed to Otho I., who went as far as Pavia, expecting to be crowned emperor; but Agapetus, influenced by Alberic, turned away from him.] In 954 Alberie took an oath from the Roman nobles that at the next vacancy they would elect as pope his son and heir, Octavian; and when Agapetus died in December, 955, Octavian did in fact succeed him as John XII. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Epistolæ et Privilegia, in MPL, iii., in Bouquet, Recueil, ix. 226-234, and in Jaffé, Regesta, i. 459-463; Bower, Popes, ii. 314-315; R. Köpke and E. Dümmler, Kaiser Otto der Grosse, Leipsic, 1876. Agapios Monachos AGAPIOS MONACHOS, a-g??´pi-os mo-n??´kos ("Agapios the Monk"; Athanasio Lando): Ascetic writer of the Greek Church; b. at Candia, Crete, toward the end of the sixteenth century; d. between 1657 and 1664. After a wandering life he took up his abode in the monastery on Mt. Athos, but he found it hard to submit to the strict discipline there. He is one of the most popular religious writers of the Greeks. By his excellent translations from the Latin, ancient Greek, and Italian into the vernacular he made many devotional works of the nations accessible to his people. He meant to be orthodox, but was influenced by Roman Catholicism, and in his works he unsuspectingly quotes Peter Damian and Albertus Magnus besides Ambrose, Augustine, and others. In penance he distinguishes between the contritio, satisfactio, and confessio; and in the Lord's Supper he accepts the doctrine of transubstantiation without using that term. The question of his orthodoxy was seriously debated in the seventeenth century by the fathers of Port Royal and representatives of the Reformed Church (cf. J. Aymon, Monumens authentiques de la Religion des Grecs, The Hague, 1708, pp. 475, 599). The most important of the works of Agapios is the "Salvation of Sinners" (1641), a devotional book for the people. His "Sunday Cycle" (1675), a collection of sermons, was also much prized. His writings went through many editions, especially those containing biographies of the saints; as the "Paradise" (1641), the "New Paradise" (c. 1664), the "Selection" (1644), and the "Summertide" (1656). The first three contain translations from Symeon Metaphrastes. Philipp Meyer. Bibliography: Gedeon, Ho Athos, Constantinople, 1855; E. Legrand, Bibliographie Hellénique, 3 vols., Paris, 1895-1903. Agatha, Saint AGATHA, ag´?-th?, SAINT: Virgin and martyr in the Roman Catholic calendar. The accounts of her given in the Latin and Greek Acta (ASB, Feb., i. 595-656) are so largely made up of legendary and poetical matter that it is impossible to extract solid historical facts from them. The fact of her martyrdom is, however, attested by her inclusion in the Carthaginian calendar of the fifth or sixth century and in the so-called Martyrologium Heroinymianum; and she is mentioned also by Damasus, bishop of Rome from 366 to 384 (Carmen, 30). There seems no reason to doubt that she suffered at Catania on Feb. 5; but the year of her death can not be determined. She is venerated particularly in southern Italy and in Sicily, where, in many places, she is invoked as a protectress against eruptions of Mount Etna. The cities of Palermo and Catania still contend for the honor of being her birthplace. (A. Hauck.) Agathists AGATHISTS. See [144]Christian Doctrine, Society of. Agatho AGATHO, ag´?-tho: Pope 678-681. He was a Sicilian monk, and in June or July, 678, succeeded Donus after a vacancy in the papacy of two and one-half months. He is especially celebrated for the decisive part which he took in the Monothelite controversy (see [145]Monothelites). He succeeded also in inducing Theodore of Ravenna to acknowledge the dependence of his church on that of Rome. At a synod held in Rome at Easter, 679, he decreed the restoration of [146]Wilfrid, archbishop of York, who had been deposed by Theodore of Tarsus, archbishop of Canterbury. The financial resources of the Roman see appear to have been very limited during his pontificate; for he not only attempted to administer in person the office of arcarius or treasurer of the Roman Church, but he persuaded the emperor to renounce the payment which had been demanded for the confirmation of a pope, though the imperial approbation was still required. Agatho died Jan. 10, 681; the Roman Church honors his memory on that day; the Greek on Feb. 20. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Literæ, in MPL, lxxxvii.; Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, i. 350-358, Paris, 1886; Bower, Popes, i. 469-485; H. H. Milman. History of Latin Christianity; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, iii. passim, Eng. transl., v. 139-144; R. C. Mann. Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, I. ii. 24-28. Agde, Synod of AGDE, ?gd, SYNOD OF: A synod which met Sept. 11, 506, at Agde (Lat. Agatha), a town on the Mediterranean coast of France (90 m. w. of Marseilles, of which it was originally a colony). The town is unimportant, though it claimed to possess the relics of St. Andrew. The synod met with the permission of Alaric II., king of the West Goths, and thirty-five bishops from the south of France attended, Cæsarius of Arles presiding. It passed forty-seven canons relating to questions of discipline, the guardianship of church property, the devout life, and--a matter of no slight importance for the south of France--the position of the Jews. An attempt was made to enforce clerical celibacy; and an almost suspicious attitude was assumed in regard to female monasticism (nuns were not to take the veil before the age of 40; no new convents were to be founded without the permission of the bishop; and the solitary life was disapproved). Provision was made for the maintenance of several traditional customs, such as the strict fast in Lent, the traditio symboli on the Saturday before Easter, the communion of the laity at Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost; an effort was made to secure liturgical uniformity. In regard to the Jewish question, it is observable that here, as elsewhere, there was no distinction in social life between Jews and Christians, but that the Church disapproved of intercourse with the Jews, and looked with some distrust on converts from Judaism. The canons of the synod are based upon older and not exclusively Gallic foundations: Spanish and African conciliar decisions are used, as well as the letter of Pope Innocent I. to Exsuperius of Toulouse. In like manner the canons of the First Frankish Synod at Orléans (511) and the Burgundian Synod at Epao (517) depend upon those of Agde. The latter were early included in the collections of church law, and Gratian incorporated a large part of them in his Decretum. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Mansi, Concilia, viii. 319; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, ii. 649-660, Eng. transl., iv. 76-86; C. F. Arnold, Cäsarius von Arelate, Leipsic, 1894. Age, Canonical AGE, CANONICAL: The age required by the canons of the Church for ordination or for the performance of any particular act. The requirement of a definite age for entering the priestly order is first found in the eleventh canon of the Synod of Neocæsarea (314 or 325): "No one is to be ordained priest before he is thirty years old . . . for Jesus Christ when thirty years old was baptized and entered upon his ministry." The first canon of the second series of canons of the Synod of Hippo in 393 required the completion of the twenty-fifth year for the reception of deacon's orders. These decisions were frequently repeated as by the Synods of Agde (506, canon xvi.), of Arles (524, canon i.), the Third Synod of Orléans (538, canon vi.), and the Fourth of Toledo (633, canon xx.), and the later repetitions were included in the canonical collections of the early Middle Ages, but in detail they were frequently changed. Urban II. at the Council of Melfi (1089, canon iv.) laid down the law that no one should be ordained subdeacon before his fourteenth year, or deacon before his twenty-fourth. For the priesthood, though the thirtieth year still remained the minimum in the written law, the practise grew of ordaining at twenty-five. The Synod of Ravenna (1314, canon ii.) fixed the sixteenth year for subdeacons, the twentieth for deacons, and the twenty-fourth for priests. Finally the Council of Trent (1563, session xxiii.) settled the minimum at twenty-two, twenty-three, and twenty-four years, respectively, for these offices. It is sufficient to have begun the year specified in the Council. For tonsure and minor orders the Council simply requires the reception of the sacrament of confirmation and a certain degree of learning. In the Protestant Churches the attainment by the candidate of his majority is usually considered sufficient, though here and there the twenty-fourth year is still required. In the Roman Catholic Church the canonical age is reckoned from the day of birth. Canonically the age of discretion is put at seven years, and then the sacraments of penance and extreme unction may be received because the child, being supposed to be capable of conscious choice, can commit a mortal sin; also the child is then subject to the regulations of the Church respecting abstinence and attendance on mass, and may also, as far as law is concerned, contract a marriage engagement. A marriage may not be contracted before puberty (except in case of extraordinary development of mind and body), i.e., before fourteen for boys and twelve for girls; nor may confirmation and the Lord's Supper be received till the child has been properly instructed. From twenty-one to sixty is the period when fasting at certain seasons is obligatory. The lowest canonical age for a bishop is thirty years completed. The minimum age at which simple vows may be taken is sixteen years completed. Clerics may not profess solemn vows before they have entered on their twentieth year. Bibliography: KL, i. 632-638; E. Friedberg, Lehrbuch des katholischen und evangelischen Kirchenrechte, pp, 151, 330, Leipsic, 1903; W. E. Addis and T. Arnold, Catholic Dictionary, London, 1903. Agelli, Antonio AGELLI, ??-jel´lî, ANTONIO (Lat. Agellius): Roman Catholic scholar; b. at Sorrento, s. of the Bay of Naples, 1532; d. at Acerno, 14 m. e.n.e. of Sorrento, 1608. He joined the order of the Theatins, became bishop of Acerno in 1593, but after a few years returned to his monastery, He was famed for his knowledge of the languages of the Bible, under Gregory XIII. and Sixtus V. was member of the commission for the publication of the Septuagint (1587), and assisted also in the publication of the Vulgate (1590). Agelli wrote commentaries on the Book of Lamentations (Rome, 1598); the Psalms and Canticles (1606); proverbs (Verona, 1649); and Habakkuk (Antwerp, 1697). Agenda AGENDA, ?-jen´d?. The Term; its Equivalents Before the Reformation (§ 1). Lutheran Changes in Roman Catholic Agenda (§ 2). Decline of Lutheran Agenda in Eighteenth Century (§ 3). The Agenda in the Reformed Church (§ 4). Revival of Agenda by Frederick William III. (§ 5). The Agenda in the Modern Lutheran Church (§ 6). American Liturgies (§ 7). 1. The Term; its Equivalents Before the Reformation. The name Agenda ("Things to be Done"; Germ. Agende or Kirchenagende) is given, particularly in the Lutheran Church, to the official books dealing with the forms and ceremonies of divine service. It occurs twice in the ninth canon of the Second Synod of Carthage (390; Bruns, Canones, i., Berlin, 1839, p. 121), and in a letter of Innocent I. (d. 417; MPL, xx. 552). The name was frequently employed in a more specific sense, as Agenda missarum, for the celebration of the mass; agenda diei, for the office of the day; agenda mortuórum, for the service for the dead; agenda matutina, and agenda vespertina, for morning and evening prayers. As the designation of a book of liturgical formulas it is stated by Ducange to have been used by Johannes de Janua, but in the only published work of Johannes (c. 1287) the name does not occur. There is no doubt, however, that with the development of the ritual of the Church the classification of liturgical formulas for the use of the parochial clergy became common. Such books of procedure were known by various names; e.g., manuale, obsequiale, benedictionale, rituale, and agenda. The last title was given especially to the church books of particular dioceses wherein the general ritual of the Church was supplemented by ceremonial features of local origin, as the agenda for Magdeburg of 1497, or the Liber agendarum secundum ritum ecclesiæ et diocesis Sleswicensis of 1512. The use of the term in the Roman Catholic Church, however, practically ceases with the Reformation, though a few instances occur in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In the Evangelical Churches, on the contrary, with the title Kirchenbuch, it speedily came to be the accepted designation for authoritative books of ritual. In the early days of the Reformation the agenda not infrequently constituted part of the Kirchenordnung or general church constitutions of a state (see [147]Church Order); but in the course of time the separation of the formulas of worship from the legal and administrative codes of the Church was effected. 2. Lutheran Changes in Roman Catholic Agenda. The earliest attempts at a reformation of the Roman ritual were naturally concerned with the mass. The innovations consisted of the omission of certain parts of the Roman ceremonial and the substitution of German for Latin, instances of the use of the vernacular in the celebration of the mass occurring as early as 1521-22. In 1523 Luther published his Latin mass, revised in accordance with evangelical doctrine; and three years later he gave to the world his Deutsche Mese und Ordnung des Gottesdiensts, the use of which, however, was not made obligatory. In the same year appeared his "Book of Baptism," in 1529 probably his "Book of Marriage," and during the years 1535-37 the formula for the ordination of ministers. In the Kirchenordnungen of the time orders of worship occur, as in Thomas Münzer's Deutzsch kirchen ampt, of 1523, and the Landesordnung of the duchy of Prussia in 1525. From this time to the end of the sixteenth century the Protestant states of Germany were busied with the task of remodeling their ecclesiastical systems and formularies of worship, the work being carried on by the great theologians of the age. The church constitutions and agenda of this period may be divided into three classes: (1) those following closely the Lutheran model; (2) those in which the ideas of the Swiss Reformation were predominant; and (3) those which retained appreciable elements of the Roman ritual. Of the first type the earliest examples are the constitutions drawn up by Bugenhagen for Brunswick, 1528; Hamburg, 1529; Lübeck, 1531; Pomerania, 1535; Denmark, 1537; Sleswick-Holstein, 1542; and Hildesheim, 1544. Justus Jonas formulated the church laws of Wittenberg (in part), 1533; of the duchy of Saxony (where the name "agenda" is first adopted), 1539; and of Halle, 1541. Hanover received its laws from Urbanus Rhegius in 1536; Brandenburg-Nuremberg, from Osiander and Brenz in 1533; and Mecklenburg, from Riebling, Aurifaber, and Melanchthon in 1540 and 1552. Among the states which adopted constitutions of the Reformed type were Hesse and Nassau, between 1527 and 1576; more closely, Württemberg, 1536; the Palatinate, 1554; and Baden, 1556. In the so-called "Cologne Reformation," drawn up largely by Butzer and Melanchthon and introduced by Archbishop Hermann in 1543, the agenda of Saxony, Brandenburg-Nuremberg, and Cassel served as models. The Roman ritual was retained to some extent in the church ordinances of the electorate of Brandenburg, 1540; Pfalzneuburg, 1543; and Austria, 1571. Of this type, too, were the ordinances drawn up by Melanchthon, Bugenhagen, Major, and others, for the electorate of Saxony in 1549; but these never went into effect, giving place in 1580 to a constitution Lutheran in character. The Thirty Years' war exercised a disastrous influence on the entire ecclesiastical system of Germany, and particularly on church discipline. The work of restoration, however, was begun almost immediately after the cessation of hostilities, but so great was the moral degradation in which the mass of the people was plunged, so low was the standard of education and general intelligence, that in the formulation of new ecclesiastical laws the governments, of necessity, assumed a far larger share of authority over the affairs of the Church than they had possessed before the war. This increased power of the government was apparent not only in a closer supervision over the ecclesiastical administration, but also in the enforcement of a stricter adherence to the formulated modes of worship. Of the agenda promulgated after the war, the most important were those of Mecklenburg, 1650; Saxony and Westphalia, 1651; Brunswick-Lüneburg, 1657; Hesse, 1657; and Halle, 1660. The eighteenth century witnessed a marked decline in the importance of the official liturgies in the religious life of the nation--a loss of influence so great as to make the books of the Church practically obsolescent. This was due to the rise of the pietistic movement which, in its opposition to formula and rigidity in doctrine, was no less destructive of the old ritual than was the rationalistic movement of the latter half of the century. Both pietism and rationalism were wanting in respect for the element of historical evolution in religion and worship; and the former, in laying stress on the value of individual prayer and devotion without attempting any change in the forms of divine service, led to their general abandonment for the spiritual edification that was to be obtained in the societies organized for common improvement, the so-called collegia pietatis. Rationalism in lending its own interpretation to the ritual, deprived it of much of its practical bearing, and necessitated, in consequence, a radical reconstruction of the prayers and hymns of the Church. But a no less important cause of change in liturgical forms is to be found in the growth of social distinctions and in the rise of a courtly etiquette which sought, with success, to impose its standards of manners and speech on the ceremonies and language of the Church. The etiquette of the salon entered the Church, and the formula "Take thou and eat," at the Lord's Supper, was altered to "Take Ye and eat" when the communicants were of the nobility. The consistory of Hanover in 1800 granted permission to its ministers to introduce during public worship such changes in language, costume, and gesture as would appeal to the tastes of their "refined audiences." As a result the old official agenda passed generally out of use and were replaced by books of worship representing the views of individual ministers. 4. The Agenda in the Reformed Church. In the Evangelical Churches outside of Germany books of ritual were drawn up during the early years of the Reformation. In 1525 Zwingli published the order of the mass as celebrated at Zurich and a formula of baptism based on the "Book of Baptism," issued by Leo Judæ in 1523. A complete agenda, including the two Zwinglian codes, appeared at Zurich in 1525 (according to Harnack and others, but more probably in 1529), under the title Ordnung der Christenlichen Kilchenn zü Zürich, and was often revised during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Bern received its first formulary in 1528; Schaffhausen, in 1592, and St. Gall in 1738. Neuchatel, in 1533, was the first French-speaking community to adopt a definite ritual; its authorship has been attributed to Farel. At Geneva, Calvin published in 1542, La Forme des prières ecclésiastiques, based on the practises he had found among the French of Strasburg during his sojourn in that city from 1538 to 1541. The Strasburg ritual was followed also by the French in London, and by many churches in France itself. Deserving of special mention are the constitutions drawn up in 1550 by Johannes a Lasco for the fugitives from the Netherlands resident in England. They form the first comprehensive formulation of the ritual of Calvinistic Protestantism, and are still in force in the Netherland Church. 5. Revival of Agenda by Frederick William III. In Germany the return to a uniform, authoritative mode of worship was begun by Frederick William III. of Prussia in the early years of the nineteenth century. After 1613 the royal family of Prussia were adherents of the Reformed creed, but the king's personal beliefs were entirely Lutheran. After the campaign of Jena (1806) he entrusted the task of drafting a ritual to Eylert, whose work, however, failed to receive the king's approval because the author had fallen into the then common error of the writers of liturgies, namely, of paying little regard to the historical development of the evangelical forms of worship. Frederick William protested vehemently against these newly fabricated rituals, and asserted the necessity of "going back to Father Luther." With this purpose he devoted many years to the personal study of ritualistic history and attained an expert knowledge of the subject, particularly of its phases in the sixteenth century. The refusal of the great mass of the clergy to lend themselves to his efforts in favor of unity, he met with the determination to make use of the power vested in him by law to bring about the desired end. In 1822 he published the agenda for the court and cathedral church of Berlin; and two years later this formulary, increased and revised with the aid of Borowsky and Bunsen, was submitted to the various consistories. Before the end of 1825, out of 7,782 churches within the Prussian dominions, 5,243 had adopted the proposed regulations. In spite of a bitter polemic, in which Schleiermacher led the assault on the king's innovations, the new regulations were introduced in all the provinces before 1838. 6. The Agenda in the Modern Lutheran Church. The king's agenda, however, did not cease to be the subject of much criticism. In 1856 it was improved; and in 1879 the General Synod determined upon a thorough revision. The work was entrusted to a committee of twenty-three, among whom were the theologians Goltz, Kleinert, Hering, Meuss, Renner, Rübesamen, Kögel, and Schmalenbach; and in 1894 their draft of a new ritual was adopted with slight changes by the General Synod. The lead of Prussia was followed by the other members of the German Empire, and most of the states have now revised their agenda or have the work in progress. Bohemia and Moravia (both Lutherans and Calvinists), Denmark, Norway, Poland, Russia, Sweden, and Transylvania have also late revisions. In France, after much agitation, a book of ritual, Liturgie des Églises reformées, de France revisées par le Synode général, was adopted in 1897. (Georg Rietschel.) 7. American Liturgies. The Church of England adopted the Book of Common Prayer under Edward VI., which, with slight revisions, has been made universally obligatory by acts of uniformity. It is used with modifications by the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States (see [148]Common Prayer, Book of). H. M. Mühlenberg prepared a liturgy which was adopted by the Lutheran Synod that he had organized (1748) and approved by the German Lutheran authorities at Halle, whose missionary he was. It was based upon those in use in Lüneburg (1643 onward), Calenberg (1569 onward), Brandenburg-Magdeburg (1739 onward), and Saxony (1712 onward). The liturgy of the Savoy Lutheran Church of London was the only one, apparently, actually in hand, the others exerting their influence through Mühlenberg's memory (for text cf. H. E. Jacobs, A History of the Lutheran Church in the United States, New York, 1893, pp 269-275; cf. also Schmucker, in the Lutheran Church Review, i., pp. 16-27, 161-172). Forms for baptism and the marriage ceremony were taken from the Prayer-Book of the Church of England. In 1795 Kunze published A Hymn and Prayer Book for the use of such Lutheran Churches as use the English Language, which has by successive revisions developed into the present English Church Book. In 1806 the New York ministerium adopted a liturgy modified by Episcopal influence, and in 1818 the Philadelphia ministerium adopted a liturgy in which extemporaneous prayer was allowed as well as freedom in selecting the Scriptures to be read. In 1885 after much controversy and conference the General Synod adopted a "Common Service," which has been widely accepted by the Churches, but is not regarded as obligatory. The Dutch Reformed Church in the United States adopted (1771) along with the Belgic Confession, the Heidelberg Catechism, and the Canons of the Synod of Dort, the liturgical forms that were at that time in use in the Netherlands. The Nicene and Athanasian creeds are appended to the liturgy, which has undergone little change. The German Reformed Church in the United States seems to have used the Palatinate liturgy, with local modifications. In 1841 the Eastern Synod published a liturgy prepared by Lewis Mayer, which, however, failed of general approval. A "Provisional Liturgy," prepared by Philip Schaff and others (1857), likewise proved unacceptable. The "Order of Worship" was allowed by the General Synod (1866) as was also the "Western Liturgy" (1869). The "Directory of Worship" was adopted in 1887 (cf. E. T. Corwin, History of the Reformed Church, Dutch, and J. H. Dubbs, History of the Reformed Church, German, New York, 1895). A book of liturgical forms, prepared by Henry Van Dyke and others appointed by the General Assembly, for use in Presbyterian Churches, but in no way obligatory, was published in 1906. It aroused considerable opposition. A. H. N. Bibliography: J. A. Schmid, Dissertatio de Agendis sive ordinationibus ecclesiasticis, Helmstadt, 1718; J. L. Funk, Die Kirchenordnung der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche Deutschlands in ihrem ersten Jahrhundert, 1824; idem, Historische Belsuchtung der Agenden, Neustadt, 1827; A. E. Richter, Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des sechszehnten Jahrhunderts, 2 vols., Weimar, 1846; H. A. Daniel, Codex liturgicus ecclesiæ universæ in epitomen redactus, 4 vols., Leipsic, 1847-53; J. H. A. Ebrard Reformirtes Kirchenbuch, Zurich, 1847; A. Nordmeier, Protestantische Agenda, Gera, 1879; R. A. Dächsel, Agende für die evangelishe Kirche, Berlin, 1880; E. Sehling, Die evangelischen Kirchenordnungen des sechszehnten Jahrhunderts, vol. i., Leipsic, 1903. Age-To-Come Adventists AGE-TO-COME ADVENTISTS. See [149]Adventists, 6. Agier, Pierre Jean AGIER, ??´´zhyê´, PIERRE JEAN: French lawyer; b. in Paris Dec. 28, 1748, of a Jansenist family; d. there Sept. 22, 1823. He held high positions in the French courts during the Revolution and under Napoleon and the Bourbons, but was early led into comprehensive theological studies. He learned Hebrew at the age of forty. His principal work is Les Prophètes nouvellement traduits de l'hébreu avec des explications et des notes critiques (8 vols., Paris, 1820-23). Among his other works are: Le Jurisconsulte national (3 vols., 1788); Vues sur la réformation des lois civiles (1793); Traité sur le mariage (2 vols., 1800); Psaumes nouvellement traduits (3 vols., 1809); Vues sur le second avénement de Jésus-Christ (1818); Prophéties concernant Jésus-Christ et l'Église (1819); and Commentaire sur l'Apocalypse (2 vols., 1823). Agilbert AGILBERT, ??´´zhîl-b??r´: Second bishop of the West Saxons (Dorchester) and afterward of Paris; b. in Gaul, probably in Paris; d. at Jouarre (35 m. e. of Paris) Oct. 11, 680; he studied in Ireland, and went to Wessex about 650, where King Cenwealh appointed him bishop to succeed Birinus (he had received consecration before leaving Gaul). As he could not speak English, Cenwealh chose another bishop, Wine, whom he located (probably in 663) in his royal city, Winchester, where he had founded a church soon after his conversion in 646. Agilbert then returned to Gaul, passing through Northumbria and attending the [150]Synod of Whitby on the way. He became bishop of Paris not before 666. He assisted at the consecration of Wilfrid as bishop of York (664 or 665), and entertained Theodore of Tarsus while on his way to Canterbury. After a time Cenwealh invited him to return to Wessex; but he declined, and sent his nephew Hlothhere, or Leutherius, who was consecrated in 670 by the archbishop of Canterbury. Bibliography: Bede, Hist. eccl., iii. 7, 25-28; iv. 1,12; v. 19. Agliardi, Antonio AGLIARDI, ??´´glî´´??r´dî, ANTONIO: Cardinal; b. at Cologno al Serio (8 m. s.s.e. of Bergamo), Lombardy, Italy, Sept. 4, 1832. After a pastorate of twelve years in his native city, he was called to Rome and appointed administrator of East Indian affairs in the College of the Propaganda, as well as professor of moral theology in the Collegium Urbanum. In the former capacity he was sent to India as apostolic delegate in 1884, after being consecrated titular bishop of Cæsarea in Palestine. Ill health forced him to return to Italy, but he was soon in India once more, and made a tour of the country which lasted five months. in 1887, after finally leaving India, he was for a time secretary for extraordinary ecclesiastical affairs, and was then successively papal nuncio at Munich and Vienna. In 1896 he was sent to Russia as ambassador extraordinary to attend the coronation of the czar, and in the same year received the cardinal's hat, while in 1899 he was made suburban bishop of Albano. In 1902 he was placed in charge of the estates of the College of the Propaganda, and since 1903 has been vice-chancellor of the Holy Roman Church. Agnellus AGNELLUS, ag´´nel´lus (called also Andrew): The historian of the Church of Ravenna; b. in that city early in the ninth century [some authorities say in 805, of a rich and noble family]; the year of his death is unknown. He entered the clerical state very early, and became abbot of the monasteries of St. Mary ad Blachernas and St. Bartholomew, both in Ravenna. He was ordained priest by Archbishop Petronacius (817-835). His reputation for learning induced his brother clergy to ask him to write the history of the local church, and he began his Liber pontificalis Ecclesiæ Ravennatis before 838, and finished it after 846. It follows the model of the Roman Liber pontificalis, giving a series of biographies of the bishops of Ravenna, beginning with Apollinaris, said to have been a disciple of St. Peter and to have died as a martyr July 23, 75 (or 78), in whose memory the Basilica in Classe at Ravenna was dedicated in the year 549. The last bishop mentioned is George, whose death falls apparently in 846. The characteristics of the work are its strong tendency to the expression of local patriotism, and the interest which it shows in buildings, monuments, and other works of art. It is one of the earliest historical works to make an extensive use of architectural monuments as sources. Agnellus had little command of written documents; he availed himself of oral tradition wherever possible, and supplied its deficiencies by a well-meaning imagination. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: His history, edited by O. Holder-Egger, is in MGH, Script. rer. Lang., 1878, pp. 265-391, also in the continuation to 1296 by an unknown writer and to 1410 by Paul Scordilli, in MPL, cvi. 429-840; A. Ebert, Allgemeine Geschichte der Litteratur des Mittelalters, ii. 374-377, Leipsic, 1880. Agnes, Saint AGNES, SAINT: A saint commemorated in the Roman Church on Jan. 21 and 28 (the Gelasian Liturgy giving the former; the Gregorian, the latter date), and in the Greek Church on Jan. 14 and 21 and July 5. Since the oldest documents (the Calendarium Romanum, the Calendarium Africanum, and the Gothic and Oriental Missale) agree in fixing Jan. 21 as the day of her death, Bolland has rightly assigned to that day the acts of her martyrdom. The year of her death, according to Ruinart, was about 304. The cause and manner of her martyrdom are given in a very legendary manner by an undoubtedly spurious Passion in the older editions of the works of St. Ambrose, which states that, having made a vow of perpetual virginity while still a child, she successfully resisted the wooing of a noble youth, the son of Symphronius, the city prefect, and embellishes the narrative with many wonders. Her hair suddenly grew so long and thick as to serve for a cloak; a light from heaven struck her importunate lover lifeless to the ground; when she was bound to the stake the flames were extinguished in answer to her prayer. After she had been beheaded at the command of the prefect, and had been buried by her parents in their field on the Via Nomentana, outside of Rome, she appeared to her people in glorified form with a little lamb at her side, and continued to perform miracles, such as the healing of the princess Constantia, for which, it is said, she was honored under Constantine the Great by the erection of a basilica at her tomb (Sant' Agnese fuori le Mura). Evidence of the high antiquity of her worship is given by Ambrose in several of his genuine writings, by Jerome (Epist., cxxx., ad Demetriadem), by Augustine, by the Christian poets Damasus and Prudentius, and by others. In medieval art St. Agnes is usually represented with a lamb, which indicates her character as representative of youthful chastity and innocence, but may have been derived from her name, which is to be connected with the Greek hagne, "chaste" (cf. Augustine, Sermones, cclxxiii. 6). Two lambs are blessed every year on Jan. 21 in the Agnes basilica, mentioned above (one of the principal churches of Rome, after which one of the cardinal priests is called), and their wool is used to make the archiepiscopal pallia which are consecrated by the pope (see [151]Pallium). O. Zöckler. Bibliography: For life and legends: Ambrose Vita gloriosa virginis Agnetis, in folio 115 of his works, Milan, 1474; ASB, Jan., ii. 350-383; T. Ruinart, Acta Martyrum, Amsterdam, 1713, Ratisbon, 1859; A. Butler, Lives of the Saints, under Jan. 21, London, 1847; L. Santini, Leben der heiligen Agnes, Ratisbon, 1884; P. Franchi de' Cavalieri, Santa Agnese nella tradizione e nella leggenda, Rome, 1899. For representations in Christian art: H. Detzel, Christliche Ikonographie, vol. ii., Freiburg, 1896. For the Catacombs of St. Agnes: J. S. Northcote and W. C. Brownlow, Roma Sotterranea, London, 1879-80; M. Amellini, Il Cimsterio di S. Agnese, Rome, 1880; W. H. Withrow, Catacombs of Rome, London, 1888; V. Schultze, Archäologie der altchristlichen Kunst, Munich, 1895. For the mystery play of St. Agnes: Sancta Agnes, Provenzalisches geistlichen Schauspiel, Berlin. 1869. Agnoetæ AGNOETÆ, ag´´no-î´tî or -ê´tê (Gk. agnoetai, "ignorant"): 1. Name of a sect of the fourth century, a branch of the [152]Eunomians, who followed the lead of Theophronius of Cappadocia. They were so named because they limited the divine omniscience to the present, maintaining that God knew the past merely by memory, and the future by divination (Socrates, Hist. eccl., v. 24). 2. The name was borne also by the sect of the sixth century, founded by Themistius, a deacon of Alexandria, and sometimes called Themistians. They consisted chiefly of the Severian faction of the Monophysites, and maintained that, as the body of Christ was subject to natural conditions, so also his human soul must be thought of as not omniscient. In support of their view they quoted Mark xiii. 32 and John xi. 34. The heresy was revived by the Adoptionists in the eighth century. Agnosticism AGNOSTICISM: A philologically objectionable and philosophically unnecessary but very convenient term, invented toward the end of the nineteenth century (1869) as a designation of the skeptical habit of mind then quite prevalent. It is defined in the Oxford Dictionary as the doctrine which holds that "the existence of anything beyond and behind natural phenomena is unknown, and (so far as can be judged) unknowable, and especially that a First Cause and an unseen world are subjects of which we know nothing." It is thus equivalent to the common philosophical term, skepticism, although expressing the phase of thought designated by both alike from the point of view of its outcome rather than of its method. Some have held, it is true, that the true agnostic is not he who doubts whether human powers can attain to the knowledge of what really is, or specifically to the knowledge of God and spiritual things, but he who denies this. But there is a dogmatic skepticism, and there is no reason why there may not be a more or less hesitant agnosticism. The essential element in both is that the doubt or denial rests on distrust of the power of the human mind to ascertain truth. It is common, to be sure, to speak of several types of agnosticism, differing the one from the other according as the basis of the doubt or denial of the attainability of truth is ontological, generally psychological, definitely epistemological, or logical. But useful as this discrimination may be as a rough classification of modes of presenting the same fundamental doctrine, it is misleading if it suggests that the real basis of doubt or denial is not in every case epistemological. When it is said, for example, that God and spiritual things are in their very nature unknowable, that of course means that they are unknowable to such powers as man possesses; nothing that exists can be intrinsically unknowable, and if unknowable to men must be so only because of limitations in their faculties of knowledge. And when one is told that the sole trouble is that the balance of evidence is hopelessly in equilibrium, and the mind is therefore left in suspense, that of course means only that such minds as men have are too coarse scales for weighing such delicate matters. Agnosticism is in short a theory of the nature and limits of human intelligence. It is that particular theory which questions or denies the capacity of human intelligence to attain assured knowledge, whether with respect to all spheres of truth, or, in its religious application, with respect to the particular sphere of religious truth. As mankind has universally felt itself in possession of a body of assured knowledge, and not least in the sphere of religious truth,--nay as mankind instinctively reaches out to and grasps what it unavoidably looks upon as assured knowledge, and not least in the sphere of religious truth,--agnosticism becomes, in effect, that tendency of opinion which pronounces what men in general consider knowledge more or less misleading, and therefore more or less noxious. Sometimes, no doubt, in what we may, perhaps, call the half-agnostic, these illusions are looked upon as rough approximations to truth, and are given a place of importance in the direction of human life, under some such designation as "regulative truths" (Mansel), or "value judgments" (Ritschl), or "symbolical conceptions" (Sabatier). The consistent agnostic, however, must conceive them as a body of mere self-deceptions, from which he exhorts men to cleanse their souls as from cant (Huxley). In effect, therefore, agnosticism impoverishes, and, in its application to religious truth, secularizes and to this degree degrades life. Felicitating itself on a peculiarly deep reverence for truth on the ground that it will admit into that category only what can make good its right to be so considered under the most stringent tests, it deprives itself of the enjoyment of this truth by leaving the category either entirely or in great part empty. Refusing to assert there is no truth, it yet misses what Bacon declares "the sovereign good of human nature," viz., "the inquiry of truth, which is the love-making or wooing of it,--the knowledge of truth, which is the presence of it,--and the belief of truth which is the enjoying of it." On the ground that certain knowledge of God and spiritual things is unattainable, it bids man think and feel and act as if there were no God and no spiritual life and no future existence. It thus degenerates into a practical atheism. Refusing to declare there is no God, it yet misses all there may be of value and profit in the recognition of God. Benjamin B. Warfield. Bibliography: Modern agnosticism takes its start in the philosophy of Kant and runs its course through Hamilton and Mansel to culminate in the teaching of Herbert Spencer; its most authoritative exposition is given in their writings and in those of their followers. Good select bibliographies of the subject may be found in A. B. Bruce, Apologetics, p. 146, London, 1892, in F. R. Beattie, Apologetics, or the Rational Vindication of Christianity, i. 521, 531, Richmond, 1903, and in R. Flint, Agnosticism, London, 1903, foot-notes, especially that on p. 643, where the titles of works on the cognoscibility of God are collected. Consult, besides the above, from the Christian dogmatic standpoint, J. Ward, Naturalism and Agnosticism, ib. 1903; C. Hodge, Systematic Theology, I. i., ch. iv., New York, 1871; B. P. Bowne, The Philosophy of H. Spencer, ib. 1874 (a criticism of Spencer's agnosticism); J. Owen, Evenings with the Skeptics, 2 vols., London, 1881; J. McCosh, The Agnosticism of Hume and Huxley, New York, 1884; J. Martineau, Study of Religion, I. i., ch. i.-iv., London, 1889; H. Wace, Christianity and Agnosticism, Edinburgh, 1895; J. Iverach, Is God Knowable? London, 1887. The agnostics' position is set forth in H. Spencer, First Principles, ib. 1904 (called "the Bible of Agnosticism"); J. Fiske, Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy, Boston, 1874; K. Pearson, The Ethic of Freethought, London, 1887; R. Bithell, Agnostic Problems, ib. 1887; idem. The Creed of a Modern Agnostic, ib. 1888; idem, Handbook of Scientific Agnosticism, ib. 1892; Christianity and Agnosticism, a Controversy consisting of Papers by H. Wace, T. H. Huxley, Bishop Magee, and Mrs. Ward, New York, 1889 (this discussion aroused wide interest); L. Stephen, An Agnostic's Apology, London, 1893; T. Huxley, Collected Essays, vol. v., 9 vols., ib. 1894 (contains his side of the controversy with Dr. Wace); W. Scott Palmer, An Agnostic's Progress, London, 1906. Agnus Dei AGNUS DEI, ag´nus dê´i ("Lamb of God"): 1. An ancient liturgical formula in the celebration of the Eucharist, found in some manuscripts of the Sacramentary of Gregory the Great after the Lord's Prayer and the Libera. The full text, based on John i. 29, is "Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis." It is found also in the ancient Eastern hymn which was annexed to the Gloria in Excelcis (see [153]Liturgical Formulas, II., 3) and was early introduced into the Western Church in Latin translation, where the form is "Domine Fili unigenite, Jesu Christe, Domine Deus, Agnus Dei, Filius Patris, qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis; qui tollis peccata mundi, suscipe deprecationem nostram." When the Second Trullan Council (892) undertook to forbid the representation and invocation of Christ under the figure of the lamb, Pope Sergius I., to express the opposition of the Roman Church, decreed that the Agnus should be sung by priest and people at the Communion. After 787, under Adrian I., it was sung by the choir only. The ritual of the mass, based in this particular on a custom which can be traced to the beginning of the eleventh century, prescribes that the priest, before taking the sacrament, shall recite the Agnus Dei three times, bowing and beating his breast to express contrition for sin, the third time with the addition of "dona nobis pacem." The consecration precedes, the Lord's Prayer is sung with the Libera nos; a piece of the consecrated and broken bread is then thrown into the cup, and the Agnus follows. At the Church festivals it is accompanied with telling effect by soft and tender music. In the mass for the dead the words "give them rest" are substituted for "have mercy upon us," the third time with the addition of "eternal." The Agnus was accepted in the Evangelical Lutheran Church at the beginning, either in the translation of Nicolaus Decius, "O Lamm Gottes unschuldig," or in the more exact form, "Christe, du Lamm Gottes, der du trägst." In the days of rationalism it was often omitted, or the phrase "Son of God" was substituted for "Lamb of God," the latter being thought to imply an unchristian, Levitical sacrificial conception. It was afterward restored, and is now used in numerous musical settings. In the Church of England the Agnus was incorporated in the Litany, but only to be repeated twice; and the last form (ending with "grant us thy peace") was placed first. In the first prayer-book of Edward I. it was included in the communion office, but was omitted in that of 1552 and all subsequent revisions. Nevertheless, it is almost invariably sung by congregations of High-church affiliations. M. Herold. Bibliography: H. A. Daniel, Codex liturgicus, vols. i., ii., Leipsic, 1847-48; L. Schöberlein, Schatz des liturgischen Chor-und Gemeindegesangs, pp. 398 sqq., Göttingen, 1880; G. Rietschel, Lehrbuch der Liturgik, p. 386, Berlin, 1900. Musical settings, by Vittoria, Palestrina, F. Burmeister (1601), F. Decker (1604), M. Prætorius (d. 1621), Mozart, and others; consult R. von Liliencron, Chorordnung, Gütersloh, 1900. 2. Name given to a wax medallion, bearing the figure of a lamb, made from the remains of the paschal taper, and consecrated by the pope in the special ceremonies on the Sunday after Easter in the first year of each pontificate and every seven years thereafter. These medallions are presented to distinguished individuals or to churches, are often enclosed in cases of costly workmanship, and are carefully preserved, almost like relics. Agobard AGOBARD, ag´o-b??rd: Archbishop of Lyons 816-840 [b., probably in Spain, 779; d. in Saintonge (an old province of western France) June 6, 840]. Nothing certain is known of his youth. He went to Lyons in 792, and probably owed his education to Leidrad, archbishop of Lyons, one of the most diligent of Charlemagne's helpers in his civilizing work. Later he became Leidrad's assistant, and then his successor. When the order of succession established by Louis le Débonnaire in 817, largely through ecclesiastical influence, was set aside at the instigation of the empress Judith (829), Agobard was one of its most zealous defenders. He seems to have taken no part in the rising of 830; but in 833 he appears among the professed opponents of Louis. He approved the deposition of the emperor, and was one of the bishops who forced him to his humiliating penance at Soissons. Consequently in 835, when Louis had recovered his power, Agobard was deprived of his office. He regained it later, being reconciled with Louis. Agobard takes a foremost place in the annals of Carolingian culture. In strictly theological treatises such as the Liber adversus dogma Felicis, against Adoptionism, and another, against image-worship, he is as much a mere compiler as any of his contemporaries. When, however, in a polemic against Fredegis, abbot of St. Martin at Tours, he deals with the question of inspiration, he speaks out boldly against the doctrine of verbal inspiration, while still declaring himself to be governed by the tradition of orthodox teachers. In his political writings he was less governed by traditional views. He was not afraid to touch one of the most difficult questions of the time, that of the restitution of Church property, at the diet held at Attigny in 822; and he renewed the demand in the tractate De dispensatione ecclesiarum rerum. His Comparatio utriusque regiminis ecclesiastici et politici (833) is one of the first writings in which the claim is outspokenly made that the emperor must do the bidding of the pope. He wrote a book against the popular superstition that storms could be caused by magic, basing his argument on religious grounds, yet making appeal to sound reason. In advance of his age, again, he denied absolutely the justice of the ordeal by battle, and wrote two tractates against it. He was also to some extent a liturgical scholar; and in the preface to his revised antiphonary laid down the principle that the words of Holy Scripture should alone be used. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: A. Cave, Scriptorum ecclesiasticorum historia literaria, vol. ii., London, 1688 (contains list of the works of Agobard); Opera, ed. E. Baluze, 2 vols., Paris, 1666, and thence in MPL, civ.; also in MGH, Leges, i. (1835) 369, MGH, Epist., v. (1899) 150-239, and in MGH, Script., xv. 1 (1887), 274-279. For his life and times: Menestrier, Histoire civile de la ville de Lyons, 3 parts, Lyons, 1696; K. B. Hundeshagen, Commentatio de Agobardi vita et scriptis, Giessen, 1831; P. Chevallard, L'Église et l'état en France au neuvième siècle, Saint Agobard, Lyons, 1869; T. Förster, Drei Erzbischöfe vor 1000 Jahren, Gütersloh, 1874; B. Simson, Jahrbücher des fränkischen Reichs unter Ludwig dem Frommen, i. 397 sqq., Leipsic, 1874; H. Reuter, Geschichte der religiösen Aufklärung im Mittelalter, i. 24-41, Berlin, 1875; DCB, i. 63-84; A. Ebert, Geschichte der Litteratur des Mittelalters, ii. 209-222, Leipsic, 1880; J. F. Marcks, Die politisch-kirchliche Wirksamkeit des . . . Agobard, Viersen, 1888; Hauck, KD, ii. 453 sqq.; Wattenbach, DGQ, i. 232, Berlin, 1904; F. Wiegand, Agobard von Lyons und die Judenfrage, Leipsic, 1901. Agonizants AGONIZANTS (Agony Fathers; Fathers of the Good Death, Camillians, Clerici regulares ministrantes infirmis): A fraternity founded at Rome in 1584 to care for the sick and minister to the dying. The founder was a pious priest Camillus de Lellis (b. at Buchianico, in the Neapolitan province Abruzzo, May 25, 1550; d. at Rome July 14, 1614), who, after a wild life as a soldier, entered the hospital of St. James at Rome in 1574, suffering from an incurable wound. Becoming converted, he devoted the remainder of his life to heroic service in the hospitals of Rome, Naples, and elsewhere. He was canonized by Benedict XIV. in 1746, and his statue now stands, among those of great founders of orders, in St. Peter's between the statues of St. Peter of Alcantara and St. Ignatius Loyola. The society was confirmed by Sixtus V. in 1586; five years later, after the members had distinguished themselves during the plague of 1590, it was created by Gregory XIV. an order with Augustinian rule. It grew rapidly in numbers and wealth during the founder's lifetime, and in 1605 was divided by Paul V. into five provinces, Rome, Milan, Bologna, Naples, and Sicily. Afterward the order spread beyond Italy, especially in Spain and Portugal, and later in France and America. During the nineteenth century it met with opposition in certain countries (including Italy, where it had thirty-four houses); but it was favored by Leo XIII., who made St. Camillus and St. John of God (see [154]Charity, Brothers of) patrons of all Roman Catholic hospitals, and inserted their names in the litany of the dying. O. Zöckler. Bibliography: C. Solfi, Compendio historico della religione de' chierici regolari ministri degli infermi, Mondovi, 1689; Fèvre, Vie de St. Camille de Lellis, Paris, 1885; W. Bäumker, Der heilige Camillus von Lellis und sein Orden, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1887; Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen, ii. 264-271. Agrapha AGRAPHA, ag´r0-f? ("Unwritten"): Name given to so-called sayings of Jesus not recorded in the Gospels, but reported by oral tradition. The term was first used by J. G. Körner in his De sermonibus Christi agraphois (Leipsic, 1776), in which he gives sixteen such agrapha. Since that time several collections of agrapha have been made; and the material seemed to have reached a climax in the work published by Alfred Resch, Agrapha: aussercanonische Evangelien-Fragmente in möglichster Vollständigkeit zusammengestellt und quellenkritisch untersucht (TU, v. 4, 1889; cf. J. H. Ropes, Die Sprüche Jesu . . . eine kritische Bearbeitung des von A. Resch gesammelten Materials, xiv. 2 of the same series, 1896). In 1897 Drs. B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt discovered a papyrus page containing eight "sayings of Jesus" which are known as "the Oxyrhynchus Logia." In Feb., 1903, they came upon another papyrus fragment of a somewhat similar character, containing five additional "sayings of Jesus." Ropes divides the material found in Resch into five classes: (1) sayings which tradition has not considered agrapha; (2) passages erroneously quoted as sayings of the Lord; (3) worthless agrapha; (4) eventually valuable agrapha; (5) valuable agrapha. Such a classification is arbitrary and impossible; and even as to the number of agrapha scholars differ. Among the more noteworthy of the agrapha are: 1. The sentence, "It is more blessed to give than to receive," quoted by Paul (Acts xx. 35) as the "words of the Lord Jesus." No such saying is mentioned in the canonical Gospels. In the Teaching of the Apostles (i. 5) is found "happy is he that giveth according to the commandment"; and in the Apostolical Constitutions (iv. 3): "since even the Lord says, the giver was happier than the receiver.'" In Clement of Rome (Epist., i. 2), the same saying seems to be referred to under the form "more willing to give than to receive." 2. "On the same day, having seen one working on the Sabbath, he said to him, O man, if indeed thou knowest what thou doest, thou art blessed; but if thou knowest not, thou art accursed and a transgressor of the law.'" This very remarkable saying occurs after Luke vi. 4 in Cod. D and in Cod. Græc. B. Rob. Stephani. 3. "But ye seek to increase from little and from greater to less. When ye go and are bidden to dinner, sit not down in the highest seats, lest one grander than thou arrive, and the giver of the feast come and say to thee, Take a lower seat,' and thou be ashamed. But if thou sit down in the meaner place, and one meaner than thou arrive, the giver of the feast will say to thee, Go up higher'; and this shall be profitable to thee." This saying is found after Matt. xx. 28 in Cod. D, and in some other codices (cf. the New Testaments of Griesbach and Tischendorf ad. loc.). 4. "Jesus said to his disciples Ask great things, and the small shall be added unto you; and ask heavenly things and the earthly shall be added unto you'" (Clement of Alexandria, Stromata, i. 24; Origen, De Orat. libell., ii.; cf. Ambrose, Epist., xxxvi. 3). 5. "Rightly, therefore, the Scripture in its desire to make us such dialecticians, exhorts us: Be ye skilful money-changers,' rejecting some things, but retaining what is good" (Clement of Alexandria, Strom., i. 28). This is the most frequently quoted of all traditional sayings. Resch gives sixty-nine passages. 6. "Let us resist all iniquity, and hold it in hatred," quoted as the words of Christ by Barnabas (Epist., iv.). In Epist., vii. is found: "They who wish to see me and lay hold of my kingdom must receive me by affliction and suffering." 7. "Our Lord Jesus Christ said, In whatsoever I may find you, in this will I also judge you.'" This saying, found in Justin Martyr (Trypho, xlvii., ANF, i., p. 219), is ascribed by Clement of Alexandria (Quis dives, xl.) to God; by Johannes Climacus (Scala paradisi, vii. 159; Vita B. Antonii, i. 15; Vita patrum, p. 41) to the prophet Ezekiel (cf. Ezek. vii. 3, 8; xviii. 30; xxiv. 14; xxxiii. 20, with Fabricius, Cod. Apocr., i. 333). These passages in Ezekiel, however, do not justify the quotation, and some apocryphal gospel is probably the authority for this saying. 8. Among the sayings found in 1903 was the following: "Jesus saith, Let not him who seeks . . . cease until he finds, and when he finds he shall be astonished; astonished he shall reach the kingdom; and having reached the kingdom he shall rest.'" Another, with conjectural restoration of missing portions, is: "Jesus saith, [Ye ask, who are those] that draw us [to the kingdom, if] the kingdom is in heaven? . . . The fowls of the air, and all beasts that are under the earth or upon the earth, and the fishes of the sea [those are they which draw] you, and the kingdom of heaven is within you; and whoever shall know himself shall find it. [Strive therefore] to know yourselves, and ye shall be aware that ye are the sons of the [almighty] Father: [and] ye shall know that ye are in [the city of God], and ye are [the city].'" B. Pick. Bibliography: Collections of agrapha are found in J. H. Grabe, Spicilegium, Oxford, 1698; J. A. Fabricius, Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti, Hamburg, 1703; R. Hoffmann, Das Leben Jesu nach den Apocryphen, Leipsic, 1851; B. F. Westcott, Introduction to the Study of the Gospels, London, 1860; Schaff, Christian Church, i. 162-167; A. Resch. Agrapha, in TU, v. 4, 1891; J. H. Ropes, in TU, xiv. 2, 1896; E. Nestle, Novi Testamenti Græci Supplementum, pp. 89-92, Leipsic, 1896; B. Pick, The Agrapha: or, Unrecorded Sayings of Jesus Christ, in The Open Court, xi. (1897) 525-541; idem, The Extra-Canonical Life of Christ, pp. 250-312, New York, 1903 (including a list of articles on the Oxyrhynchus Logia published in 1897); C. Taylor, The Oxyrhynchus Logia and the Apocryphal Gospels, London, 1899; E. Preuschen, Antilegomena, pp. 43-47, Giessen, 1901; The New Sayings of Jesus, and Fragment of a Lost Gospel were published by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt, Oxford and New York, 1904, reviewed in Biblical World, xxiv. (1904) 261, in Saturday Review, xcviii. (1904) 133, and Church Quarterly, lviii. (1904) 422. For sayings of Jesus in Mohammedan writers consult D. S. Margoliouth, in The Expository Times, v. (1893) 59, 107, 177; W. Lock, in The Expositor, 4th series, ix. (1894) 97-99; and for sayings of Jesus in the Talmud consult Pick, ut sup. Agreda, Maria De AGREDA, MARIA DE. See [155]Maria de Agreda. Agricola AGRICOLA: Pelagian writer; under the date 429 in his Chronicon, Prosper of Aquitaine mentions a British theologian of this name, the son of Severianus, a Pelagian bishop, saying that he corrupted the churches of Britain by his teaching, until Pope Celestine sent [156]Germanus, Bishop of Auxerre, to undo the mischief and bring back the Britons to the Catholic faith (cf. Bede, Hist. eccl., i. 17). Caspari has printed five unsigned letters and a tract on riches which are obviously all by the same Pelagian author, and has shown it to be probable that this is Agricola. From them it is learned that the author on his way to the East to learn the true ascetic life, heard the Pelagian ascetic teaching from a Roman lady in Sicily, and became a zealous preacher of it. The value of these writings lies in the glimpse which they give of the ethical side of Pelagianism. (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: C. P. Caspari, Briefe, Abhandlungen, und Predigten aus den zwei letzten Jahrhunderten des kirchlichen Altertums und dem Anfang des Mittelalters, Christiania, 1890. Agricola, Johann AGRICOLA, JOHANN: An associate of Luther, and the originator of the antinomian controversy of the German Reformation; b. at Eisleben Apr. 20, 1494 (according to his own account; others give 1492 or 1496); d. at Berlin Sept. 22, 1566. His real name was Schneider, first Latinized into "Sartor," then, from a corruption of "Schneider (Snider)" to "Schnitter," into "Agricola." He entered the University of Leipsic in the winter of 1509-10, with the intention of studying medicine, but Luther attracted him to theology. After taking his bachelor's degree, he went, in the winter of 1515-16, to Wittenberg, where he came wholly under Luther's influence. He witnessed the famous promulgation of the theses; and at the Leipsic disputation (1519) he acted as Luther's secretary. He soon became friendly with Melanchthon also, and an influential member of the little group of Wittenberg theologians. A modest income was provided for him by the position of teacher of grammar and the Latin classics in the Pædagogium; and before long he lectured on dialectics and rhetoric, and later on the New Testament. Schoolmaster in Eisleben. On the outbreak of the Peasants' War (1525), Agricola accompanied Luther to the Hartz Mountains, and gained from Count Albert of Mansfeld the nomination as head of the Latin school to be opened at Eisleben. This work, after a visit to Frankfort, as Luther's deputy, to help settle the ecclesiastical affairs of that place, he took up in Aug., 1525; and two catechetical books grew out of it, the second of which (1528) already exhibits the opposition between the Law and the Gospel which was to develop into his antinomian convictions. A commentary on the Epistle to Titus (1530) and a translation of Terence's Andria, with notes (1544), are doubtless other results of his school work. At Eisleben also he began his three collections of German proverbs, with explanations, which have ever since been popular. Certain critical remarks about Ulrich of Württemberg in the first of these collections involved Agricola in difficulties both with Ulrich and with his protector, Philip of Hesse, which were ended only by two successive apologies, prevented Luther from taking him to the Marburg conference, and influenced his bearing in the Schmalkald struggle. He had opportunities of preaching at St. Nicholas's church in Eisleben, and acquired the reputation of being one of the strongest pulpit orators of the Wittenberg circle, so that he was asked to attend the Diet of Speyer in 1526 and 1529 and preach before the court. At this period also he made himself useful as a translator from the Latin, rendering among other things Melanchthon's commentary on several Pauline epistles. Controversies. His relations with Melanchthon were seriously disturbed in 1526. Soon after his departure from Wittenberg a new theological professorship was founded there, on which, with Melanchthon's encouragement, he set his heart. When it was conferred on the latter, Agricola's vanity received a wound which put an end to the cordiality of their friendship; and it is easy to understand why he began the antinomian controversy in 1527 with an attack, not on Luther, but on Melanchthon. Luther, however, whose relations with Agricola were still friendly, succeeded in effecting an apparent agreement. Agricola now fell out with Albert of Mansfeld. Differences arose over the measures to be taken for defense against the emperor and with regard to the treatment of matrimonial questions; and in 1536 Agricola was treating with Luther to secure a recall to Wittenberg. The elector promised him a speedy appointment to a university position, and meantime invited him to come to Wittenberg to give his counsel on the question of the Schmalkald articles. Agricola removed thither at Christmas, 1536. Albert, annoyed at the manner of his departure from Eisleben, accused him to the Wittenberg group as the founder of a new sect antagonistic to Luther, and to the elector as a turbulent fellow of the Münzer type. Luther stood by him, however, and even gave him and his family shelter in his own house; and when Luther went to Schmalkald in 1537, Agricola took his place both at the university and in the pulpit. Expressions used in some of his sermons, and the rumor that he was privately circulating antinomian theses containing attacks on Luther and Melanchthon, made him an object of suspicion. His antinomian disputes with Luther himself began; and after each apparent settlement they broke out with fresh violence (for details of the controversies see [157]Antinomianism, Antinomian Controversies, II.). He found employment in the newly founded Wittenberg consistory until Feb., 1539, when he formally accused Luther before the elector, who practically put him under arrest. Before the matter was settled he escaped to Berlin (Aug., 1540). At Melanchthon's suggestion and through Bugenhagen's mediation, he was allowed to retract his accusation and to return to Saxony. Cordial relations between the two men could, however, no longer exist: Luther never trusted Agricola again; and the latter, on his side, held that he remained true to the original cause, from which Luther had fallen away. Later Life. Joachim II. of Brandenburg gave Agricola a position as court preacher, and took him to the Conference of Regensburg (1541), the interim drawn up at which he considered a useful basis of unity. He followed his prince in the inglorious campaign against the Turks in 1542, and gained more and more influence over him, in spite of the efforts of Joachim's mother. He became general superintendent and visitor of Brandenburg, administering confirmation and ordination, though he himself had never received any kind of ordination. When the Schmalkald League took up arms against the emperor, Agricola attacked them in his sermons as disturbers of the peace, and gave thanks for the emperor's victory at Mühlberg, utterly failing to see the danger to the evangelical cause. It flattered his vanity when he was chosen as the Protestant theologian on the commission appointed at the Diet of Augsburg (1547-48) to draw up an interim; and he had the thankless task of endeavoring to persuade his fellow Protestants to accept it. The more strongly and increasingly they rejected it, the more animosity was concentrated on Agricola, who attempted to vindicate his Lutheran standing by the part which he took in the controversy with [158]Osiander; and the common cause brought him once more closer to Melanchthon. It fell to him to give judgment between Stancaro and [159]Andreas Musculus; and he pronounced in favor of the latter. The controversy on the necessity of good works raged for years in Brandenburg, and Agricola stoutly opposed the Philippists. For a while they seemed to prevail with Joachim, but the court swung round again to Agricola's side; and in 1563 he was able to hold a thanksgiving service in Berlin for the final victory over his opponents--a victory for strict Lutheranism won mainly by the man whom Luther had despised. He died three years later, during an epidemic of the plague. He was undoubtedly a gifted man, though his rightful development was hindered by his vanity, which brought about the breach with Luther, and by the temptations of court life, which, as he himself recognized when too late, he had not sufficient strength of mind to resist. (G. Kawerau.) Bibliography: G. Kawerau, Johann Agricola won Eisleben, Berlin, 1881. Agricola, Stephan AGRICOLA, STEPHAN (originally Castenpauer): A follower of Luther; b. in Abensberg (18 m. s.w. of Regensburg), Bavaria; d. at Eisleben Easter, 1547. He studied at Vienna, joined the Augustinians, gained fame as a preacher and teacher, and was promoted doctor of theology in 1519. Imitating St. Augustine, he preached on entire books of the Bible in Vienna in 1515, as lector in the Augustinian monastery at Regensburg in 1519-20, and in other places. His sermons brought him under suspicion. He was accused of preaching heretical, inflammatory, and offensive dogmas; of having recommended Luther's writings on the Babylonian captivity and on the abolition of the mass; of having spoken offensively of the Roman see, bishops, and clergy; and of having demanded the abolition of all ceremonies. He was imprisoned in 1522; thirty-three charges were made against him; and his answer, denying dependence upon Luther and making appeal to Augustine and the Scriptures, was of no avail. He prepared for death, and wrote Ein köstlicher gutter notwendiger Sermon vom Sterben (1523), which his friend Wolfgang Russ published. He escaped, however, found a home with the Carmelite Johann Frosch of Augsburg in 1523, and preached there from time to time. Not long after 1523 he published under the name of "Agricola Boius" Ein Bedencken wie der wahrhafftig Gottesdienst von Gott selbs geboten und aussgesetzt, möcht mit besserung gemeyner Christenheyt widerumb aufgericht werden, a kind of reformation-programme. Protected by the city council, he labored with Rhegius and Frosch for the Reformation in Augsburg, and became pronounced in his adherence to Luther's views as against Zwingli. By translating into German Bugenhagen's polemical treatise against Zwingli's Contra novum errorem de sacramentis (1525), he won over the Augsburg congregation to the Lutheran side. At the invitation of the landgrave Philip, he took part in the Marburg Colloquy and signed the articles agreed upon. In 1531 he left Augsburg as he was opposed to Butzer's Zwinglian tendency and went to Nuremberg, where he stayed with Wenceslaus Link. In 1537 he attended the Schmalkald Diet and signed Luther's articles. When the Reformation was introduced into the Upper Palatinate, he accepted a call to Sulzbach where he preached the first evangelical sermon June 3, 1542. He afterward went to Eisleben. (T. Kolde.) Bibliography: C. Spangenberg, Wider die böse Sieben in Teufels Karnöffelspiel, Eisleben, 1562; H. W. Rotermund, Geschichte des auf dem Reichstage zu Augsburg in Jahre 1530 . . . Glaubensbekenntnisses, Hanover, 1829; Datterer, Des Kardinals und Erzbischofs von Salzburg Matthäus Lang Verhalten zur Reformation, Erlangen, 1892. Agriculture, Hebrew AGRICULTURE, HEBREW: Palestine is praised in the Old Testament as a "land flowing with milk and honey"; and, indeed, with little labor it yielded what the inhabitants needed. Field and Garden Products. Of cereals, wheat was and is the most important product; the Ammonite country appears to have been specially noted for it (II Chron. xxvii. 5). The best wheat today is that of the Hauran and Belka, and of the high table-land between Tabor and the Lake of Tiberias. Much wheat was raised by the Hebrews in the time of Solomon, and then and later it was one of the chief articles of export (I Kings v. 11; Ezek. xxvii. 17). Barley was equally common and in the earlier time was the chief material for bread (Judges vii. 13; II Kings iv. 42). With progress in culture and the settled life its use was limited to the poorer classes (John vi. 9, 13; Josephus, War, V. x. 2). Today it is used for fodder only; it was also so used in the ancient time (I Kings iv. 28), and its value appears to have been about one-half that of wheat (II Kings vii. 1). There is no evidence in the Old Testament that beer was made from it. A third and less important cereal (Heb. kussemeth; LXX, olyra, Ex. ix. 32; Isa. xxviii. 25; Ezek. iv. 9; erroneously rendered "rye" in A. V.) was probably spelt. Rye and oats are not mentioned. The chief legume bearing plants were beans (II Sam. xvii. 28; Ezek. iv. 9) and lentils (Gen. xxv. 34; II Sam. xvii. 28, xxiii. 11; Ezek. iv. 9). Both were ground into meal, and were used for bread in time of scarcity (Ezek. iv. 9). Leeks, onions, and garlic were used as seasoning and to give relish to bread. Cucumbers and melons are also mentioned as delicacies of which the Israelites were deprived in the wilderness (Num. xi. 5). Both are particularly refreshing in hot countries, and the poor live for months on bread and cucumbers or melons alone. Of condiments and spices the Old Testament mentions two varieties of cumin (Heb. kammon, ?e?a?, Isa. xxviii. 25; the former used also as medicine) and the coriander (Ex. xvi. 31; Num. xi. 7, often mentioned in the Talmud). The New Testament adds: dill (Eng. versions, "anise," Matt. xxiii. 23), mint (ib.; Luke xi. 42), rue (Luke xi. 42), and mustard (Matt. xiii. 31, xvii. 20; Mark iv. 31; Luke xiii. 19, xvii. 6). The mustard-seed was proverbial as the smallest of seeds. The mustard plant grows quickly and reaches a height of ten feet. To these food-producing plants must be added flax (Josh. ii. 6; Isa. xix. 9; Hos. ii. 5, 9, and elsewhere) and cotton. The former of these is not much cultivated today; but it was of great importance to the ancient Israelites, as, together with wool, it supplied the material for their clothing. In the Greco-Roman period it was one of the chief articles of trade. The importance of the flax-cultivation can be inferred from the statement of the Talmud, that it was permissible to put a flax-bed under water on semi-holy days in order to destroy injurious insects (Moed Katan i. 6). Linen-manufacture was carried on especially in Galilee. How early the cotton-plant was introduced into Palestine is not known. The Hebrew terms shesh and buz do not necessarily mean linen, but include cotton cloth, or a mixed material like the Greek byssos. The foreign word karpas (Gk. karpasos) is used for cotton in Esther i. 6 and in the Talmud. In Greco-Roman times cotton was grown and exported (cf. Pausanias, V. v. 2). For wine and oil see the separate articles. Climatic Conditions. Palestine is praised in Deut. viii. 7, xi. 10-11, as a "land of brooks of water, of fountains and depths that spring out of valleys and hills," which has no need of artificial irrigation because it "drinketh water of the rain of heaven." Compared with the neighboring countries, it can not, indeed, be called poorly watered. In normal years the natural precipitation suffices for a great part of the fields. Land thus naturally watered is called in the Mishnah "house of the Baal" or "field of the house of the Baal," and the name is kept to this day (cf. Smith, Rel. of Sem., p. 97). But the ancient Israelites knew that watercourses and underground water were indispensable (cf. Ps. i.; Deut. viii. 7; Isa. xxxii. 20; Ezek. xvii. 8), and that the rain alone was not always sufficient; they therefore appreciated the pools made by the Canaanites and added to them (see [160]Water Supply in Palestine). For these favors of nature the Israelite ever felt his immediate dependence upon Yahveh (cf. Deut. xi. 14; Jer. iii. 3, v. 24; Joel ii. 23; Zech. x. 1). Yahveh's blessing shows itself in his sending the first rain and the latter rain in due season; in the rain his mercy is seen, in the drought his anger. Thus he proves himself indeed the Baal of the land, who waters and fertilizes it (cf. Smith, 1.c.). Cultivation. The Israelites learned agriculture from the Canaanites. How rapidly they made the transition from the nomadic stage can not be determined; it seems to have been practically complete at the beginning of the regal period (cf. I Sam. xi. 5; II Sam. xiv. 30, which indicate that high and low were then engaged in the cultivation of the soil), although certain tribes of the south and the East-Jordan country retained more or less of the nomadic character till the Exile. That the religious observances, preeminently the great festivals, rest upon an agricultural basis is significant. Irrigation was not the only artificial improvement that was necessary. The land had to be cleared of thorns and weeds, and stones had to be removed (cf. Isa. v. 2; Matt. xiii. 3-7), although the fellahs to-day often allow the stones to remain because they help to retain moisture. Extensive terracing was indispensable to retain the thin soil on the steep hillsides. Manuring and burning were practised (Isa. v. 24, xxv. 10, xlvii. 14; Joel ii. 5; Ob. 18), but probably neither extensively nor annually. Dried dung is more valuable today as fuel, and it was so used in the ancient time (Ezek. iv. 15). The usual method of renewing the strength of the soil was fallowing (Ex. xxiii. 11, and elsewhere). The winter crops (wheat, barley, lentils, etc.) were sown as soon as the early rain had softened the ground--from the end of October to the beginning of December. The sowing of the summer crops (millet, vetches, etc.) followed, and lasted (in the case of cucumbers) till after the winter harvest. Well-watered fields bear two crops. The surface of the soil was scratched by a very primitive plow, drawn by oxen or cows (Judges xiv. 18; I Kings xix. 19; Job i. 14; Amos vi. 12), sometimes in light soils by an ass (Deut. xxii. 10; Isa. xxx. 24). The furrow today is from three to four inches deep. The driver's goad (Judges iii. 31) served also to break the clods. According to the usual assumption, the field which a yoke of oxen (Heb. ?emedh) could plow in a day was the unit of land-measurement, as the present unit, the feddan (22-23 acres), represents a season's plowing. It is more probable, however, that they measured land by the amount of seed sown, as is done in the Talmud, and that zemedh is properly a measure of capacity and then designates a piece of ground of such size that it required a zemedh of seed. The surface was evened with an implement resembling a stone-boat or with a roller (Job xxxix. 10; Isa. xxviii. 24-25; Hos. x. 11). The seed was sown by hand; wheat, barley, and spelt were often carefully laid in the furrow. In the time of the Mishnah, as at present, it was plowed in. At present, seed is sown rather thinly. An estimate of the amount of land under cultivation in ancient times is impossible. Large tracts in Palestine can never have been used for anything but pasturage; the "deserts" were extensive, as their frequent mention shows; and there was more wooded land than now (Josh. xvii. 15, 18; II Kings ii. 24). These facts make it probable that the extent of cultivated land did not materially exceed that of today. Harvest. In the Jordan valley the barley-harvest begins from the end of March to the first half of April; in the hill-country, on the coast, and in the highlands, from a week to a month later. The cutting of the barley opens, that of the wheat closes, the harvest season. Altogether it lasts about seven weeks and from of old it has been a time of joy and festivity (Ps. iv. 7; Isa. ix. 3). The Feast of the First Fruits, on which, according to the Priest Code, a barley-sheaf was offered (Lev. xxiii. 9-14), ushered in this festive time; the Feast of Weeks, seven weeks after the opening of the harvest, when an offering of two wave-loaves of the new wheat (Lev. xxiii. 17-21) was made, closed it. The grain was cut with a sickle (Deut. xvi. 9, xxiii. 25; Job xxiv. 24; Jer. l. 16; Joel iii. 13). With the left hand the reaper grasped a bundle of ears (Isa. xvii. 5; Ps. cxxix. 7), and with the right he cut them fairly close to the head. The binder followed, gathering the cut grain into his arms (Ps. cxxix. 7) and making it into sheaves (Gen. xxxvii. 7; Lev. xxiii. 10; Deut. xxiv. 19; Ruth ii. 7; Ps. cxxvi. 6), which were then collected in stacks (Judges xv. 5; Ruth iii. 7; Job v. 26). The harvesters refreshed themselves during their toil by eating parched corn and bread dipped in a mixture of vinegar and water (Ruth ii. 14). According to old custom and the law, forgotten sheaves and the privilege of gleaning after the reapers belonged to the poor (Lev. xix. 9, xxiii. 22; Deut. xxiv. 19; Ruth ii. 2); the Priest Code provided also that the corners of the field were not to be wholly reaped (Lev. xix. 9, xxiii. 22). In like manner it was permissible to pluck ears from another's field to eat (Deut. xxiii. 25; Matt. xii. 1). The reaping was immediately followed by the thrashing. Small quantities of grain, and dill, cumin, and the like, were beaten out with a flail (Judges vi. 11; Ruth ii. 17; Isa. xxviii. 27); but in most cases wheat, barley, and spelt were taken to the thrashing-floor, which, if possible, was placed on high ground so that the wind might carry off the chaff. The kernels were trodden out by cattle or were separated by means of a rude thrashingsled or wagon (II Sam. xxiv. 22; Isa. xxviii. 27-28; Amos i. 3). Both custom and the law forbade the muzzling of an ox in treading out the grain (Deut. xxv. 4); and today it is commonly estimated that an ox will consume from three to four pecks of the grain daily during the thrashing-time. Winnowing was accomplished, with the help of the wind, by means of a shovel or a wooden fork having two or more tines (Isa. xxx. 24; Jer. xv. 7). The chaff is now used as fodder; according to Matt. iii. 12, it seems in ancient time to have been burned. The grain was sifted (Amos ix. 9) and shoveled into heaps. It was usually stored in cistern-like pits in the open field, carefully covered (Jer. xli. 8). Real barns are not mentioned till late times (Deut. xxviii. 8; II Chron. xxxii. 28; Jer. l. 26; Joel i.17). In general, Palestine may be called a fertile land, but its productivity has been greatly overestimated. Today the mountain-lands of Judea yield on an average from two- to threefold; the valleys of Hebron, with fertilization, from four- to fivefold; the very fertile Plain of Sharon, carefully cultivated by German colonists, eightfold for wheat and fifteenfold for barley. There is no reason to believe that the average return was greater in ancient times. Laws. Some of the laws have already been mentioned. Of greater importance in their effect upon agriculture were the laws aiming to prevent the alienation of landed property. The ancestral field was sacred (cf. I Kings xxi. 3). This provision explains the law of Lev. xxv. 25, according to which, if an impoverished Israelite had to sell his field, his kinsman had the first right of purchase (cf. Jer. xxxii. 6-12). The law also gave the original owner a perpetual right of redemption, and restored the field to him in the year of jubilee without compensation to the purchaser; a city house could be redeemed only within a year, and did not return in the year of jubilee (Lev. xxv. 27-34). The underlying thought here is that the land is not the private property of the Israelites, but belongs to God, and the Israelites have only the right of use. It may be questioned how far such laws were carried out; they are closely connected with the year of jubilee (see below). The same desire to preserve family possessions shows itself in the law of inheritance. In ancient time daughters did not inherit; if there were no sons, property passed to the nearest relative of the father, with the obligation to marry the widow (cf. the Book of Ruth). The Priest Code allows daughters to inherit when there are no sons, but they must marry within the family or, at least, within the tribe of the father (Num. xxxvi.). Still more important in its effect upon agriculture was the development of the Sabbath idea. It was an old custom and a law of the Book of the Covenant that every field should lie fallow one year in seven (Ex. xxiii. 10-11). The custom fell into disuse and Deuteronomy knows nothing of it. But the Priest Code revived it, imposed it upon the entire land at the same year (cf. Josephus, Ant., XII. ix. 5), and added the theoretic and impracticable yeas of jubilee (see [161]Sabbatical Year and Year of Jubilee). Lastly, laws arising from ideas of ceremonial impurity must be mentioned, such as the prohibition of sowing unclean seed (Lev. xi. 37-38), of plowing with an ox and an ass together, and of sowing different kinds of seed in one field (Lev. xix. 19; Deut. xxii. 9-10). Of the age of these customs nothing is known. The Mishnah developed and added to these laws with great detail. I. Benzinger. Bibliography: J. L. Saalschütz, Das mosäische Recht, Berlin, 1853; E. Robinson, Physical Geography of the Holy Land, Boston, 1865; J. G. Wetzstein, in F. Delitzsch, Commentar zu Jesaia, pp. 399-599, 705-713, 2d ed., Leipsic, 1869 (treats of winnowing; neither in last ed. nor in Eng. transl.); idem, Die syrische Dreschtafel, in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, v. (1873) 270-302; F. Hamilton, La Botanique de la Bible, Nice, 1871; H. B. Tristram, Natural History of the Bible, London, 1873; idem, The Fauna and Flora of Palestine, in Survey of Western Palestine, ib. 1884 (authoritative); J. Smith, Bible Plants, their History and Identification, ib. 1878; C. J. van Klinggräff, Palästina und seine Vegetation, in Oesterreichische botanische Zeitschrift, xxx., Vienna, 1880; W. M. Thomson, The Land and the Book, 2 vols., New York, 1880-82; I. Löw, Aramäische Pflanzennamen, Leipsic, 1881; E. Boissier, Flora orientalis, Geneva, 1884; J. H. Balfour. The Plants of the Bible, London, 1885; G. Anderlind, Ackerbau und Tiersucht in Syrien, insbesondere in Palästina, in ZDPV, ix. (1886) 1-73; S. Schumacher, Der arabische Pflug, ib. iv. (1881) 70-84, ix. (1886) 1-73, xii. (1889) 157-166; A. E. Knight, Gleanings from Bible Lands . . . Occupations of their Inhabitants, London, 1891; V. Hehn, Kulturpflanzen und Haustiere, Berlin, 1894; H. Vogelstein, Die Landwirtschaft in Palästina zur Zeit der Mischna, ib. 1894; H. C. Trumbull, Studies in Oriental Social Life, Philadelphia, 1894; DB, i. 48-51; EB, i. 76-89; JE, i. 262-270; E. Day, Social Life of the Hebrews, New York, 1901 (a useful book, based largely on a study of the book of Judges). Consult also the works on antiquities and archeology by De Wette-Räbiger, Leipsic, 1864; H. Ewald, Göttingen, 1866, Eng. transl., London, 1876; C. F. Kell, Frankfort, 1875; Schegg-Wirthmüller, Freiburg, 1887; I. Benzinger, ib. 1894; W. Nowack, ib. 1894; and PEF, Quarterly Reports, particularly the earlier numbers. Agrippa I and II AGRIPPA I. AND II., kings of Judea. See [162]Herod and his Family. Agrippa Castor AGRIPPA CASTOR: Christian author who lived in the time of Hadrian, and was perhaps an Egyptian. Eusebius (Hist. eccl., iv. 7) speaks of him very highly. He wrote a refutation of the Gnostic Basilides, which, according to Eusebius, showed independent knowledge of the latter's teaching. G. Krüger. Bibliography: MPG, vi.; M. J. Routh, Reliquiæ sacræ, i: 85-90, Oxford, 1846. Agrippa von Nettesheim, Heinrich Cornelius AGRIPPA VON NETTESHEIM, net´´tes´´h?im´, HEINRICH CORNELIUS: Scholar and adventurer; b. at Cologne, of noble family, Sept. 14,1486; d. at Grenoble 1535. He studied at Cologne and Paris, and took part in some obscure enterprise in Spain (1507-08); lectured at the University of Dôle, in Franche-Comté, on Reuchlin's De verbo mirifico (1509), and aroused the opposition of certain monks; was sent to England on a political mission by the emperor (1510); returned to Cologne and lectured on quæstiones quodlibetales; served in the imperial army in Italy from 1511 to 1518, and during the same period went to the Council of Pisa as a theologian (1511), and lectured on medicine, jurisprudence, and Hermes Trismegistus in Pavia and Turin. He was appointed syndic at Metz in 1518, but had to flee from the Inquisition two years later. He entered the service of the Duke of Savoy, practised medicine at Freiburg (1523); became physician to the queen mother of France, but was expelled and fled to the Netherlands (1529); was appointed historiographer to Charles V. and lived for some years under the protection of Archbishop Hermann of Cologne, but finally returned to France, where he died. Of his two most celebrated works, the De occulta philosophia (written 1509-10; first printed, book i.; Antwerp, 1531; books i.-iii., Cologne, 1533) is a compilation from the Neoplatonists and the Cabala and gives a plan of the world with an exposition of the "hidden powers" which the learning of the time thought it necessary to assume for the explanation of things; the other, De incertitudine et vanitate scientiarum et artium (written 1526; printed 1527), is a compilation from the Humanists and Reformers, and gives a skeptical criticism not only of all-sciences, but of life itself. A collected edition of Agrippa's works was published at Lyons in 1600. Bibliography: H. Morley, The Life of Henry Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim, 2 vols., London, 1856. Aguirre, Joseph Saenz de AGUIRRE, ??-gîr´re, JOSEPH SAENZ, s??nz, DE: Spanish cardinal; b. at Logroño (60 m. e. of Burgos), Spain, Mar. 24,1630; d. in Rome Aug. 16, 1699. At an early age he entered the Benedictine order, and became abbot of St. Vincent at Salamanca, and in 1666 professor of theology in the university there; he was also a consultor of the Spanish Inquisition, and ultimately superior-general of the Spanish congregation of his order. In 1686 Innocent XI. made him cardinal as a reward for upholding the papal authority against Gallicanism in his Defensio cathedræ S. Petri adversus declarationem cleri Gallicani anni 1682 (Salamanca, 1683). The most important of his numerous theological and philosophical writings are his Collectio maxima conciliorum omnium Hispaniæ et novi orbis (4 vols., Rome, 1693; new ed. by Catalani, 6 vols., 1753) and his unfinished Theologia S. Anselmi (3 vols., 1679-85; 2d ed., 1688-90). (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: H. Hurter, Nomenclator literarius recentioris theologiæ catholicæ, ii. 521-552, Innsbruck, 1893. Agur AGUR. See [163]Proverbs. Ahab AHAB, ê´hab: Seventh king of Israel; son and successor of Omri. His dates are variously given--918-897 B.C., according to the older chronology; 878-857, Kamphausen; 875-853, Duncker; 874-854, Hommel; d. about 851, Wellhausen. His history in I Kings xvi. 28-xxii. 40, is based upon two main sources, from which long extracts are given; the one, which furnished the account of the wars with the Arameans (ch. xx. and xxii.), may be described as a popular history of the kings of the northern realm and their wars; the other, from which the Elijah narratives are taken, evidently originated in prophetic circles. Both were of the ninth century and of Ephraimitic origin. The Monolith Inscription of Shalmaneser II. of Assyria (see [164]Assyria, VI., § 8) states that in the army defeated by Shalmaneser at Karkar (854 B.C.) were 10,000 men and 2,000 chariots furnished by Akhabbu Sir'laai, by whom in all probability Ahab of Israel is meant (for another view, cf. Kittel, 233-234; Kamphausen, 43, note). The [165]Moabite Stone also states that the subjection of Moab to Israel, established by Omri, lasted for "half of his son's days." Ahab's reign was a time of prosperity. The long war with Judah was ended, and Ahab's daughter Athaliah was married to Jehoram, Jehoshaphat's son. A marriage alliance was also made with the Phenicians, Ahab taking to wife Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal of Tyre. The Moabites remained subject to Israel and paid a considerable tribute (II Kings iii. 4). Jericho was rebuilt, and other cities were fortified or built. Ahab erected a palace at Jezreel (probably the "ivory house" of I Kings xxii. 39). In later years he had to fight with the Arameans of Damascus, who laid siege to Samaria, but were defeated and driven off. In the following year both armies met at Aphek in the plain of Jezreel, and Ben-hadad, the Syrian king, was captured and magnanimously treated by Ahab; with the promise to give up the conquests of his father and to allow Ahab's merchants to have bazaars in Damascus, he was set free. After three years Ahab undertook a new war against Damascus to capture Ramoth-gilead, which probably was to have been delivered to Israel after the covenant at Aphek. This time he had the help of Jehoshaphat of Judah, whose son may have married Ahab's daughter at this time. The battle was lost and Ahab was mortally wounded. Ahab's reign is of great importance in the religious development of Israel, and is marked by a bitter contest between the throne and the prophets. That Ahab had no intention of apostatizing from Yahweh, the god of his people, is shown by the names he gave his children; but to rule righteously, according to the conception of the prophets, did not suit his policy. He tolerated the calf worship instituted by Jeroboam (I Kings xii. 26-33), and, influenced by his Phenician wife, introduced into Samaria the worship of the Syrian Baal (Melkarth), for whom he built in his capital a great temple with all the necessary paraphernalia. No doubt certain circles in Israel were shocked by this heathen worship; but the great majority saw in it no inconsistency with the Mosaic religion. It fell to Elijah to rebuke the people for "halting between two opinions"; but his voice, like that of other prophets who protested, had little effect. Jezebel tried to silence them by bloody persecutions; and Elijah complained that he was the only prophet of Yahweh left. It must not be imagined, however, that all so-called prophets of Yahveh had been killed; for Ahab, who still regarded himself as a worshiper of Yahweh, would hardly have permitted such an act. Those who did not oppose the worship of Baal were doubtless left alone; but in the eyes of Elijah they were not much better than the prophets of Baal. After the event on Mount Carmel (I Kings xviii.) Jezebel saw the futility of trying to suppress the opposition to the worship of Baal, and the prophets who had kept in hiding could come and go freely. Ahab and his wife were also denounced by Elijah for the crime committed against Naboth and his family, which led to signs of contrition on the king's part and to a postponement to his son's days of the threatened retribution (I Kings xxi.; cf. II Kings ix. 21-26). Ahab's character and achievements are differently estimated. He was undoubtedly an able man, and desired to promote the welfare of his people; he was a brave warrior, and died manfully. But in the estimation of many these virtues are outweighed by his weakness toward Jezebel, his short-sighted optimism after the victory at Aphek, and his lack of deep religious conviction and earnestness. (W. Lotz.) Bibliography: On the chronology: A. Kamphausen, Chronologie der hebräischen Könige, Bonn, 1883; Chronology of the Kings of Israel and Judah compared with the Monuments, in Church Quarterly Review, Jan., 1886; E. Mahler, Biblische Chronologie und Zeitrechnung der Hebräer, Vienna, 1887; DB, i. 397-403; EB, i. 773-819; and sections on chronology in the following named works. On the history: H. Ewald, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, 7 vols., Göttingen, 1864-68 (Eng. transl., 8 vols., London, 1867-83); M. Duncker, Geschichte des Alterthums, ii., Leipsic, 1878; B. Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, 2 vols., Berlin, 1884-89; E. Renan, Histoire du peuple Israel, 5 vols., Paris, 1887-94, Eng. transl., London, 1888-91; R. Kittel, Geschichte der Hebräer, 2 vols., Gotha, 1888-92, Eng. transl., 2 vols., London, 1895-96; H. Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, 11 vols., Leipsic, 1888-1900, Eng. transl., 6 vols., London, 1891; G. Rawlinson, Kings of Israel and Judah, London, 1889; Smith, OTJC; idem, Prophets; H. Winckler, Geschichte Israels, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1895-1900; C. F. Kent, History of the Hebrew People, 2 vols., New York, 1896-97; idem, Students' Old Testament, ii., ib. 1904; J. Wellhausen, Israelitische und judische Geschichte, Berlin, 1897; idem, Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels, Berlin, 1899 (in Eng., Prolegomena to the History of Israel, with a reprint of the article Israel' from the "Encyclopædia Britannica," Edinburgh, 1885); C. H. Cornill, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Leipsic, 1898, Eng. transl., Chicago, 1898; DB, ii. 506-518; EB, ii. 2217-89; H. P. Smith, Old Testament History, New York, 1903. Further material is to be found in the commentaries on the Books of Kings and Chronicles. On indications from the monuments: Schrader, KB, 6 vols., Berlin, 1889-1901; idem, KAT, 3d ed., by H. Zimmern and H. Winckler, 2 vols., Berlin, 1903, Eng. transl. of 1st ed., London, 1885-88; H. Winckler, Altorientalische Forschungen, i.-vi., Leipsic, 1893-97 (new series, 3 vols., 1898-1901; 3d series, 2 vols., 1901-05); A. H. Sayce, Higher Criticism' and the Monuments, London, 1894; J. F. McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments, 2 vols., New York, 1894-1901; W. St. C. Boscawen, The Bible and the Monuments, London, 1895; S. R. Driver, in D. G. Hogarth, Authority and Archaeology, London, 1899. Ahasuerus AHASUERUS, ?-haz´yu-î´rus: A name given in the Old Testament to two kings. 1. The father of Darius the Mede (Dan. ix. 1). Since Darius is mentioned before Cyrus, he can be no other than Astyages, and Ahasuerus would then be Cyaxares. Phonetically the name is just as little connected as Cyaxares with the name which that king has in the Persian cuneiform inscriptions, and which must probably be read Huvakhshtra. It is also often found that the Median and Persian kings are differently named in the sources, a difference which is to be explained by the fact that after their accession to the throne they took new names. In Tob. xiv. 15 "Asueros" is Astyages, since he is mentioned as the conqueror of Nineveh beside Nebuchadnezzar. 2. A king mentioned in the book of Esther, the Khshayarsha of the Persian inscriptions and the Xerxes of the Greeks, who ruled from 485 to 465 B.C., and was the son of Darius Hystaspes. This is indicated by the identity of the name and the agreement in character as that is given by Herodotus. With this agrees also the mention of Shushan (Susa) as his residence, and the statement in Esther i. that the kingdom extended from India, to Ethiopia--a statement which is confirmed by the enumeration of the provinces of the Persian empire in the epitaph of Darius at Nakshi Rustem, which, however, would not suit the time before Darius. With Xerxes, not with Cambyses, the Ahasuerus of Ezra iv. 6 is no doubt identical, to whom the Samaritans presented a bill of indictment against the exiles who returned to Jerusalem. (B. Lindner.) Bibliography: T. Benfey, Die persischen Keilinschriften, Leipsic, 1847; F. Spiegel, Eranische Alterthumskunde, 3 vols., ib. 1871-78; Schrader, KAT; A. H. Sayce, Higher Criticism and the Monuments, pp. 543 sqq., London, 1894; W. St. C. Boscawen, The Bible and the Monuments, ib, 1895. Ahaus, Heinrich von AHAUS, ??´´hauz´, HEINRICH VON (Hendrik van Ahuis): Founder of the Brethren of the Common Life in Germany; b. in the principality of Ahaus, near Münster, 1370; d. in Münster 1439. He was descended from a noble family whose ancestors dated back to the ninth century, and who took their name from their territories on the River Aa. In 1396 he took religious orders and, influenced by his aunt, formerly abbess of Vreden in Gelderland, then a member of the Sisterhood of the Common Life at Deventer, affiliated himself with the followers of the new teaching in that town. He remained at Deventer probably till the year 1400, living in close association with the companions and successors of Groote, the founder of the fraternity, such as Florentius Radewyns, Brinckerink, Gerhard Zerbolt, and Thomas a Kempis. Having mastered the principles and the organization of the Brethren, and imbued with their zeal, he returned to Westphalia and in the year of his arrival founded a brotherhood at Münster. The death of his father left him with ample means with which he erected a house for the accommodation of the Brethren. Later he ceded to them his magnificent residence and estate at Springbrunnen, which became the seat of the general chapter of the fraternity. Living without vows or written regulations, and given up to the practise of the humble Christian virtues, the Brethren, nevertheless, met with opposition from many of the clergy and laity. The former looked askance at their close intermingling of the ascetic and spiritual with the secular life, and resented the influence which they speedily began to exert in the field of education, while the citizens of Münster regarded the activity of the fraternity in the production of beautiful books, which constituted the chief source of their livelihood, as unwelcome competition. The Dominicans were the most zealous of their opponents and at the instance of one of that order, Matthæus Grabow, complaint against the Brethren was lodged with the Council of Constance. Owing to the intercession of Gerson and Pierre d'Ailly, however, they obtained a complete vindication (1418), and the persecution served only to hasten the rapid spread of their influence. Ahaus was one of the representatives sent to Constance to defend the cause of the brotherhood. In 1416 Ahaus established at Cologne the second great house of the fraternity; and in 1428 a union was effected between the chapters of Cologne and Münster whereby the two houses were constituted practically one body. In 1441 this union was joined by the chapter of Wesel in Cleves, which had been founded by Ahaus in 1435. To the end of his life Ahaus busied himself with the erection of new chapters and the active supervision of the established houses; and, in addition to the three great chapters mentioned, many smaller foundations were established in the dioceses of Münster and Osnabrück. Communities of Sisters of the Common Life also were established at Emmerich, Herford, Hildesheim, and other places, aside from the mother house at Münster, with the foundation of which Ahaus was not connected. The labors of Ahaus exercised a beneficent influence upon the condition of the Church in Germany. The standard of learning among the clergy was raised, and monasticism was purified of many of its evils, while its ideals of a spiritual life received wide extension through the founding of secular communities. The Brethren were also influential in the establishment of schools, in the diffusion of literature both in manuscript and in printed form, and in the extension of the use of the vernacular for religious purposes. L. Schulze. Bibliography: L. Schulze, Heinrich von Ahaus, in ZKW, iii., 1882. Ahaz AHAZ, ê´haz: Eleventh king of Judah, son and successor of Jotham. He ruled, according to the older computation, 742-727 B.C.; according to Köhler, 739-724; according to Kamphausen, 734-715; according to Hommel, 734-728. The most important political event of his reign was the subjugation of Judah to Assyria as a result of the Arameo- (Syro-) Ephraimitic war. Pekah, king of Israel, and Rezin of Damascus had conspired against Judah before the death of Jotham (II Kings xv. 37), but war was not actively carried on until after the accession of Ahaz. The latter could not maintain himself in the field and retired to the fortified Jerusalem. According to the Chronicler, he was defeated in pitched battle at some stage of the war. Rezin captured Elath on the Red Sea, which had been in possession of Judah since the days of Amaziah and Uzziah (Azariah, II Kings xiv. 7, 22), and restored it to the Edomites (xvi. 6, where the reading should be "Edomites" instead of "Syrians"), perhaps in return for help in the war (cf. II Chron. xxviii. 17). Judea was laid waste and partly depopulated (cf. Isa. i. 5-9). Ahaz in his need applied for help to Tiglath-pileser II. of Assyria, who forced the enemies of the Judean king to retire; but, as the price of this deliverance, Judah became an Assyrian vassal state, the king's treasure and the treasure of the Temple being carried to Nineveh, and a yearly tribute imposed. Few kings of Judah are represented as having so little inclination to the true Yahveh-religion as Ahaz. He sacrificed "on the hills, and under every green tree," and set up molten images of the Baalim. In a time of great distress he even offered his son to Molech in the Valley of Hinnom; and it may be inferred from II. Kings xxiii. 11-12 that, under Assyrian influence, he built altars for the worship of the heavenly bodies in the vicinity of the Temple. The religious and moral deterioration of the people under Ahaz is the frequent theme of Isaiah's prophecy. (W. Lotz.) It is now generally held that the reign of Ahaz extended from 735 to 719 B.C. The dates are important not merely as fixing the time of the accession of Hezekiah with his change of policy toward Assyria, but also their correlation with other events. Thus Ahaz is seen to have survived the fall of Samaria (722 B.C.) and the Assyrian expedition against Ashdod (720 B.C.) with its consequences to Judah (cf. Isa. xx.). J. F. M. Bibliography: Consult the works mentioned under [166]Ahab, and C. P. Caspari, Ueber den Syrisch-ephraimitischen Krieg unter Jotham und Ahas, Christiania, 1849. Ahaziah AHAZIAH, ê´´h?-z?i´??: 1. Eighth king of Israel, son and successor of Ahab. He reigned about two years (856-855 B.C., according to Kamphausen; for other views, see the dates given for the close of his father's reign in the article [167]Ahab). Little is known of his reign. Doubtless he ended the war with Ben-hadad (see [168]Ahab) by treaty. After Ahab's death, the Moabites rebelled successfully; but Ahaziah seems to have undertaken no war against them. He had the misfortune to fall from a window and received serious injury; being a worshiper of Baal, he sent to Ekron to seek counsel from Baal-zebub; and his messengers were met on the way by Elijah, who foretold a fatal issue of his sickness as a punishment for sending to Baal. His history is found in I Kings xxii. 49-II Kings 1. (W. Lotz.) The death of Ahab and accession of Ahaziah of Israel fell in 853 B.C. (see [169]Ahab), as is now generally agreed. Jehu acceded in 842 B.C., for in that year he paid homage to Shalmaneser II. according to the statement of the latter on his Black Obelisk. But Joram, who comes between Ahaziah and Jehu, reigned "twelve years" (II Kings iii. 1). This term seems to fill up the whole time between 853 and 842, inclusive. Accordingly the sickness of Ahaziah and active regency of Joram began just after the accession of the former, whose very brief reign could have had no significance whatever. J. F. M. 2. Sixth king of Judah, son of Jehoram. He reigned one year (884 B.C., according to the older computation; 843, according to Kamphausen; 842, according to Hommel). He married a daughter of Ahab, and it is therefore not surprising that he was a Baal-worshiper. His relation with the house of Omri caused his early death. He joined his brother-in-law, Joram of Israel, in a campaign against Hazael of Damascus, and the two allies attacked Ramoth-gilead. Joram was wounded and returned to Jezreel, whither Ahaziah went to visit him, and there he fell into the hands of Jehu, who killed him as a member of the house of Omri. The accounts of his death in Kings and Chronicles can not be reconciled. His history is found in II Kings viii. 25-ix. 29; II Chron. xxii. 1-9. (W. Lotz.) Bibliography: Consult the works mentioned under [170]Ahab. Ahijah AHIJAH, ?-h?i´j??: A prophet, living at Shiloh, mentioned in I Kings xi. 29-39, xii. 15, xiv. 1-18; II Chron. ix. 29, x. 15. All these passages in the Book of Kings are Deuteronomic, or at least have been worked over by a Deuteronomic editor. In the latter part of Solomon's reign Ahijah seems to have enjoyed great authority as Yahweh's prophet. Next to Samuel and Elisha he is the most striking example of the fact that the prophets of Israel, besides promoting the religious life, meddled with political affairs. He gave voice to the deep dissatisfaction which all true Yahweh-worshipers felt in the latter part of Solomon's reign, and foretold to Jeroboam that he would become king over ten tribes. Years later, when Ahijah was an old man, dim of eyesight, Jeroboam sent his wife to the prophet in disguise to obtain help, if possible, in the severe sickness of his son. Again the prophet declared the misfortune to be the consequence of unfaithfulness to Yahweh; he foretold the death of the prince and the extinction of the house of Jeroboam. The Chronicler, according to his custom, made Ahijah also a historian of his time. (R. Kittel.) Ahimelech AHIMELECH, ??-him´e-lec: High priest at the tabernacle in Nob. He gave the showbread and Goliath's sword to David, not knowing that the latter was fleeing from Saul, and for this reason he, together with the entire priestly family of eighty-five persons (LXX, thirty-five) and the whole city of Nob, was slain by Doeg the Edomite at Saul's command (I Sam. xxi.-xxii.). Only his son Abiathar escaped and went to David. Ahimelech is called the son of Ahitub (I Sam. xxii. 9, 20), and was therefore great-grandson of Eli and a descendant of Ithamar. "Ahiah" (I Sam. xiv. 3) is probably another name for Ahimelech; if not, Ahiah must have been an older brother of the latter who officiated before him, or possibly the father of Ahimelech, who, in this case, should be called the grandson of Ahitub. Abiathar served David as priest during the latter's exile (I Sam. xxii. 20-23, xxiii. 6-12, xxx. 7-8) and throughout his reign, although Zadok of another priestly line is always mentioned first (II Sam. xv. 24, xvii. 15, xix. 11, xx. 25). He was deposed by Solomon for having favored the succession of Adonijah (I Kings ii. 26-27, 35). C. von Orelli. Ahithophel AHITHOPHEL, ??-hith´o-fel: A counselor of David. He is called "the Gilonite," i.e., from Giloh, a city in the south of Judah (II Sam. xv. 12). David esteemed him highly for his great wisdom (II Sam. xvi. 23). When Absalom revolted, Ahithophel faithlessly betrayed David in the expectation that the rebellion would be successful (II Sam. xv. 12, 31, xvi. 21, xvii. 1 sqq.). He soon perceived, however, that his authority was not paramount with the young prince; and when the latter rejected his advice to attack David at once, he went home and hanged himself (II Sam. xvii. 23). Some think that Ps. xli. 9, lv. 12 sqq. have reference to David's sad experience with Ahithophel. Eliam, a son of Ahithophel, was one of David's heroes (II Sam. xxxiii. 34); it is hardly possible that he was the Eliam mentioned as the father of Bath-sheba (II Sam. xi. 3). C. von Orelli. Ahlfeld, Johann Friedrich AHLFELD, ??l´feld, JOHANN FRIEDRICH: Lutheran; b. at Mehringen (in the Harz, near Bernburg, 25 m. n.n.w. of Halle), Anhalt, Nov. 1, 1810; d. at Leipsic Mar. 4,1884. His father was a carpenter, and he owed some of his later power to the fact that he was brought up with an intimate knowledge of the nature and needs of the mass of the people. From 1830 to 1833 he studied at Halle. For a year he was a private tutor, and then he taught in the gymnasium at Zerbst. His preaching at this time was influenced by rationalism. At the beginning of 1837 he was appointed rector of the boys' school at Wörlitz; and here he came under the influence of Schubring, a man of simple faith, and his views changed. In 1838 he became pastor of Alsleben, on the Saale, a village of sailors where he worked hard and exercised a powerful influence, finding time, however, for literary work, and vigorously defending the old-fashioned faith against rationalism. He was called to Halle in 1847 through Tholuck's endeavors, and did his duty nobly in the troublous times of the Revolution and of the cholera epidemic of 1849. He took positions of more and more prominence, and in 1850 was chosen pastor of St. Nicholas's Church in Leipsic. In 1881 he retired from active work. As a preacher Ahlfeld gained and maintained a remarkable popularity. Abstract speculation was not his strong point. He was at home in the concrete, and knew how to narrate with great effect stories from Holy Scripture, from the history of the Church, and from his own or others' experience. Besides preaching, he taught in the Leipsic Theological Seminary, and for many years did good service on the commission appointed to revise Luther's version of the Old Testament. He left a lasting memorial of his labors in more than one charitable foundation with whose origin he had much to do. Of the numerous collections of his discourses may be mentioned: Predigten über die evangelischen Perikopen (Halle, 1848; 12th ed., 1892); Das Leben im Lichte des Wortes Gottes (1861; 7th ed., 1886); Predigten über die epistolischen Perikopen (1867; 5th ed., 1899); Confirmationsreden (2 series, Leipsic, 1880). (A. Hauck.) Bibliography: Friedrich Ahlfeld, weiland Pastor zu St. Nikolai in Leipzig; ein Lebensbild, Halle, 1885. Aichspalt AICHSPALT, ?ik´sp??lt (AICHSPALTER, ASPELT): A common designation (from his birthplace, Aspelt, near Luxembourg) for Peter, archbishop of Mainz (1306-20); b. between 1240 and 1250; d. at Mainz June 4, 1320. He is an important figure in the politics and history of his time, but of less interest for religion or theology. Of humble origin, he was ambitious and adroit, and sought his advancement with skill and success. A knowledge of medicine helped him to win the favor of princes and popes. He was chancellor to Wenceslaus II., king of Bohemia (1296-1305), and during this time quarreled with Albert of Austria and thenceforth was an opponent of the house of Hapsburg. He promoted the election of Henry of Luxembourg as emperor in 1308, and under him was all-powerful in German affairs. He was made bishop of Basel in 1296, archbishop of Mainz in 1306, and proved himself efficient and praiseworthy in his diocese. Bibliography: J. Heidemann, Peter von Aspelt als Kirchenfürst und Staatsmann, Berlin, 1875. Aidan, Saint AIDAN, ai´dan, SAINT: First bishop of Lindisfarne; d. at Bamborough (on the coast of Northumberland, 16 m. s.e. of Berwick) Aug. 31, 651. When Oswald, king of Northumbria (634-642), wished to introduce Christianity into his dominions (see [171]Oswald, Saint; [172]Celtic Church in Britain and Ireland), he applied to Seghine, abbot of Iona, for missionaries, and a certain Corman was sent, who soon returned, declaring it was impossible to Christianize so rude a people. Aidan, then a monk of Iona, suggested that Corman had failed to adapt his teaching to their needs and had expected too much, forgetting the Apostle's injunction of "milk for babes." Whereupon Aidan was at once ordained and sent to Oswald in Corman's place (635). He established himself on the island of Lindisfarne, near Bamborough, brought fellow workers from Ireland, and founded a school of twelve English boys to provide future priests. Consistently exemplifying in his daily life the doctrines he taught, he gained great influence with Oswald and, after his death, with Oswin, king of Deira, while the people were won by his mildness, humility, and benevolence. He could not preach in the Saxon language at first and Oswald acted as interpreter. His work in Northumbria was continued by [173]Finan. All information about Aidan comes from Bede (Hist. eccl., iii. 3, 5-17, 26), who praises him and tells marvelous stories about him. Bibliography: J. H. A. Ebrard, Die iroschottische Missionskirche, Gütersloh, 1873; A. C. Fryer, Aidan, the Apostle of the North, London, 1884; J. B. Lightfoot, Leaders in the Northern Church, ib. 1890; W. Bright, Early English Church History, 153-168, 188-189, Oxford, 1897. Aiken, Charles Augustus AIKEN, CHARLES AUGUSTUS: American Presbyterian; b. at Manchester, Vt., Oct. 30, 1827; d. at Princeton, N. J., Jan. 14, 1892. He was graduated from Dartmouth College in 1846 and from Andover Theological Seminary in 1853; entered the Congregational ministry, and became pastor at Yarmouth, Me., 1854; became professor of Latin in Dartmouth 1859; in Princeton 1866, president of Union College 1869, professor of ethics and apologetics in Princeton Theological Seminary 1871; was transferred to the chair of Oriental and Old Testament literature 1882. He was a member of the Old Testament revision company, and translated Zöckler's commentary on Proverbs in the Lange series (New York, 1869). Ailly, Pierre D AILLY, PIERRE D', pyar d´??´´lyî´ (Lat. Petrus de Alliaco): Chancellor of the University of Paris, later bishop of Cambrai and cardinal, one of the distinguished churchmen who sought to restore unity to the divided Church during the great papal schism (1378-1429; see [174]Schism) by means of a general council; b., probably at Ailly-le-hautclocher (20 m. n.w. of Amiens), in the present department of Somme, 1350; d. at Avignon Aug. 9, 1420. He was brought up in Compiègne in the midst of the desolation caused by the war with England and an insurrection of the peasants (the Jacquerie); to this was no doubt in part due the strong national feeling and the prejudice against England which he showed later. He entered the University of Paris as a student of theology in the College of Navarre in 1372, and began to lecture on Peter Lombard in 1375. His lectures (printed as Quæstiones super libros sententiarum, Strasburg, 1490), gained for him the reputation of a clear thinker, and helped to make the nominalism of Occam predominant in the university. He also distinguished himself as a preacher. On Apr. 11, 1380, Ailly was made doctor of theology and professor. His treatise on this occasion, and other essays written about the same time (published as appendix to the Quæstiones; also in Gersonii opera, ed. Du Pin, i. 603 sqq., Antwerp, 1706), show his position concerning the doctrine of the Church, which was brought to the front by the schism. The Christian Church, he said, is founded on the living Christ, not on the erring Peter, on the Bible, not on the canon law. The existing evils can be cured by a general council. Against those who opposed this idea of a council he wrote in 1387 a satirical epistle "from the devil to his prelates" (text in Tschackert, Appendix, pp. 15 sqq.). In 1384 he became director of the College of Navarre, where he had among his pupils Jean Gerson, who became his faithful friend. In 1389 Ailly was made chancellor of the university and almoner of Charles VI. of France, a position which brought him in close relation with the court at Paris. When the Avignonese pope, Clement VII., died (1394), Ailly's influence secured the recognition by France of his successor, the Spaniard Peter de Luna (Benedict XIII.). As a reward Benedict made Ailly bishop of Puy (1395), and two years later bishop of Cambrai. In 1398 Charles VI. of France and Wenceslaus of Germany sent him upon unsuccessful missions to both Boniface IX. and Benedict, to try to induce them to resign their office. Benedict was then kept a prisoner in Avignon by French troops till he escaped to Spain (1403). In 1398 and again in 1408 France withdrew its obedience from Benedict, without, however, declaring for his rival. The attempt to nationalize the French Church failed because the civil authorities of the time conducted Church affairs worse than the pope. In 1408 Ailly finally abandoned the cause of Benedict. The addition of a new element of discord by the choice of a third pope at the [175]Council of Pisa in June, 1409, was not in accord with Ailly's wishes; but in the main he stood by the council (cf. his Apologia concilii Pisani, in Tschackert, pp. 31 sqq.), though he continued to write in favor of reform by another council. John XXIII. (the Roman pope) sought to conciliate him by an appointment (June 7, 1411) as cardinal, with the title Cardinalis Sancti Chrysogoni, though he himself preferred to be called "the Cardinal of Cambrai." He attended the council called in Rome by John in 1412, where he interested himself in a reform of the calendar. In 1413 he traveled through Germany and the Netherlands as papal legate, and at the same time was active as a writer. Ailly's most important services in church history, however, were rendered at the Council of Constance (met Nov. 5, 1414; see [176]Constance, Council of). Here he maintained the superiority of a general council over the pope, but at the same time defended the privileges of the college of cardinals against the council. It was due to Gerson and Ailly that after the flight of John XXIII. from Constance (Mar. 20, 1415), the council was not adjourned. He had the courage to preside over the first popeless session (Mar. 26, 1415), and to carry out the order of business of that important gathering. The council had to decide three points: (1) The causa unionis (abolition of the schism); (2) the causa reformationis (reformation of the Church in capite et in membris); and (3) causa fidei (the case of John Huss). Ailly was very active in the last two. As president of the commission on faith, he examined Huss (June 7 and 8, 1415; Documenta J. Hus., ed. F. Palacky, Prague, 1869, pp. 273 sqq.), and was present at his condemnation (July 6). He expressed his ideas on reform, as deputy of the college of cardinals, in the commission on reform and in a writing of Nov., 1416, De reformatione ecclesiæ (in H. von der Hardt, Magnum oecumenicum Constantiense concilium, i., part viii., Frankfort, 1700). His views on the power of the Church he had already published (October) in his De potestate ecclesiæ. When, in November, the council proceeded to the choice of a new pope, Ailly was a candidate; but the opposition of the English prevented his election. He lived on good terms with his successful competitor, Otto di Colonna, and as his legate at Avignon continued influential in the French Church till his death. Ailly was always faithful to the interests of his country, although he was more churchman than Frenchman. He influenced the young Luther by his doubts concerning the doctrine of transubstantiation (cf. Luther's De captivitate Babylonica, Erlangen ed., var. arg., v. 29). In 1410 he wrote a geographical work Imago mundi (n.p., n.d.), which has interest as having been one of the sources from which Columbus drew his belief in the possibility of a western passage to India (cf. Tschackert, 334 sqq.). Paul Tschackert. Bibliography: P. Tschackert, Peter van Ailli, Gotha, 1877 (gives bibliography of Ailly's works, pp. 348-366); L. Salembier, Petrus de Alliaco, Lille, 1886 (also gives bibliography of his works, pp. 2 sqq.); G. Erler, Dietrich von Nieheim, Leipsic, 1887; H. Finke, Forschungen und Quellen zur Geschichte des Konstanzer Konzils, pp. 103-132, Paderborn, 1889 (gives the diary of Ailly's colleague, Cardinal Fillastre, pp. 163 sqq.); B. Bess, Zur Geschichte des Konstanzer Konzils, vol. i., Marburg, 1891. Ailred AILRED, êl´red (ÆLRED, ETHELRED): Abbot of the Cistercian abbey of Rievaulx in England (20 m. n. of York); b. at Hexham (20 m. w. of Newcastle-upon-Tyne), probably in 1109; d. at Rievaulx Jan. 12, 1166. He spent his youth at the court of Scotland, entered the abbey of Rievaulx in 1131, became abbot of Revesby, Lincolnshire and returned to Rievaulx as abbot in 1146. He wrote historical and theological works, the former of which include lives of St. Edward the Confessor and St. Ninian, while among the latter are: Sermones; Speculum charitatis; De spirituali amicitia; De duodecimo anno Christi; Regula sive institutio inclusarum; and De natura animæ. All of his printed works, with life by an anonymous author, are in MPL, cxcv. Bibliography: Thos. Wright, Biographia Britannica literaria, ii. 187-196, London, 1846; J. H. Newman, Lives of the English Saints, 2 vols., ib. 1845-46; A. P. Forbes, in Lives of St. Ninian, St. Kentigern, St. Columba, Introduction, ib. 1875; Ethelred, in DNB, xviii. 33-35 (contains list of his writings). Aimoin AIMOIN, ê´´mw??n´: The name of two French monks, both known as historians. 1. Aimoin of St. Germain: Teacher in the monastery school of Saint-Germain-des-Prés near Paris. He seems to have begun his literary career about 865; and to have died at the end of the ninth century or in the beginning of the tenth. His works, all of a hagiographical nature, are in MPL, cxxvi. 1009-56. 2. Aimoin of Fleury: A disciple of [177]Abbo of Fleury, at whose suggestion, and therefore not later than 1004, he wrote a Historia Francorum, from their origin to the time of Clovis II. (d. 657). His life of Abbo has greater historical value; and his account of the translation of the relics of St. Benedict to Fleury contains numerous data for French history of the tenth century. His works are in MPL, cxxxix. 375-414, 617-870; and there are extracts in MGH, Script.; ix. (1851) 374-376. (A. Hauck). Bibliography: (1) A. Ebert, Geschichte der Litteratur des Mittelalters, ii. 352-355; W. Wattenbach, DGQ, i. (1904) 330. (2) W. Wattenbach, ut sup., pp. 121, 466-470. Ainger, Alfred AINGER, ALFRED: Church of England; b. at London Feb. 9, 1837; d. there Feb. 8, 1904. He was educated at King's College, London, and Trinity Hall, Cambridge (B.A., 1860), and was ordered deacon in 1860 and priested in the following year. He was successively curate of Alrewas, Staffordshire, in 1860-64, assistant master of Sheffield College School in 1864-66, and reader at the Temple Church, London, in 1866-93. From 1894 until his death he was Master of the Temple. He was likewise made canon of Bristol in 1887, and was elected honorary fellow of Trinity Hall in 1898, being also select preacher at Oxford in 1891 and 1898, as well as honorary chaplain to the queen in 1895-96 and chaplain in ordinary to the king after the latter year. In addition to a number of monographs on English authors, and besides contributions to the Dictionary of National Biography, he wrote Sermons Preached in the Temple Church (London, 1870). He is best known for his biography of Charles Lamb (London, 1882) and his editions of Lamb's works (1883 sqq.). His genial humor and whimsical temperament peculiarly fitted him to be the editor of Lamb, and, with his uncommon personality and exquisite literary taste, made him one of the most popular clergymen of London. He attracted to the Temple Church perhaps the most distinguished congregation in the city. Bibliography: E. Sichel, Life and Letters of Alfred Ainger, New York, 1906. Ainsworth, Henry AINSWORTH, HENRY: English separatist; b., probably at Swanton, near Norwich, 1571; d. at Amsterdam 1622 or 1623. Driven from England, about 1593 he went to Amsterdam, and in two or three years became "teacher" of the congregation of which [178]Francis Johnson was minister. He and Johnson could not agree and the congregation divided in 1610. In 1612 Johnson went to Emden, and thenceforth Ainsworth had the field to himself. It has been inferred that he lacked a university training from a statement of Roger Williams, that "he scarce set foot within a college walls" (Bloody Tenet, 1644, p. 174; cf. Dexter, 270, note 68); but the register of Caius College, Cambridge, shows that he was admitted there Dec. 15, 1587, and was in residence there as a scholar for four years. He was unquestionably a learned man, wrote excellent Latin, and had a knowledge of Hebrew (perfected by association with Amsterdam Jews), equaled by that of few other Christians of his time. He was earnest and sincere in his faith, conciliatory in spirit, and moderate in controversy. He had the chief part in drafting the Congregational Confession of 1596 (entitled A True Confession of the Faith, and Humble Acknowledgment of the Allegiance which we, her Majesty's subjects, falsely called Brownists, do hold towards God, and yield to her Majesty and all other that are over us in the Lord; cf. Walker, pp. 41-74, where the full text is given). He wrote many controversial works (for full list consult DNB, i. 192-193) and a series of Annotations upon the books of the Pentateuch, the Psalms, and the Song of Songs (1612 sqq.; collected ed., London, 1626-27; reprinted, 2 vols., Glasgow, 1843), which have still some value. Bibliography: H. M. Dexter, Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years, New York, 1880; W. Walker, Creeds and Platforms of Congregationalism, p. 43, note 1, New York, 1893. Aitken, William Hay Macdowall Hunter AITKEN, WILLIAM HAY MACDOWALL HUNTER: Church of England; b. at Liverpool Sept. 21, 1841. He was educated at Wadham College, Oxford (B.A., 1865, M.A., 1867). He was presented to the curacy of St. Jude's, Mildmay Park, London, in 1865, and was ordained priest in the following year. From 1871 to 1875 he was incumbent of Christ Church, Liverpool, but resigned to become a mission preacher. The next year he founded, in memory of his father, Rev. Robert Aitken, the Aitken Memorial Mission Fund, of which he was chosen general superintendent, and which later developed into the Church Parochial Missionary Society. He twice visited the United States on mission tours, first in 1886, when the noonday services for business men at Trinity Church, New York, were begun, and again in 1895-96. Since 1900 he has been canon residentiary of Norwich Cathedral. Two years later he was a member of the Fulham Conference on auricular confession. He has been a member of the Victoria Institute since 1876. In theology he is a liberal Evangelical, but has never been closely identified with any party. He adheres strongly to the doctrines of grace, although he repudiates Calvinism. While not an opponent of higher criticism in itself, he exercises a prudent conservatism in accepting its conclusions. In his eschatology he is an advocate of the theory of conditional immortality. His writings include: Mission Sermons (3 vols., London, 1875-76); Newness of Life (1877); What is your Life? (1879); The School of Grace (1879); God's Everlasting Yea (1881); The Glory of the Gospel (1882); The Highway of Holiness (1883); Around the Cross (1884); The Revealer Revealed (1885); The Love of the Father (1887); Eastertide (1889); Temptation and Toil (1895); The Romance of Christian Work and Experience (1898); The Doctrine of Baptism (1900); The Divine Ordinance of Prayer (1902); and Life, Light, and Love: Studies on the First Epistle of St. John (1905). Aix-La-Chapelle AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. See [179]Aachen. Aked, Charles Frederic AKED, CHARLES FREDERIC: English Baptist; b. at Nottingham Aug. 27, 1864. He was educated at Midland Baptist College and University College, Nottingham, after having passed the early part of his life as an auctioneer. He was then pastor at Syston, Leicestershire, in 1886-88, and at St. Helens and Earlstown, Lancashire, in 1888-90, and from 1890 to 1906 was minister of Pembroke Chapel, Liverpool. In the latter year he was elected pastor of the Fifth Avenue Baptist Church, New York City. From 1893 to 1906 he made yearly visits to the United States as a lecturer and preacher, and was also vice-president of the United Kingdom Alliance and one of the founders of the Passive Resistance League. In addition to numerous sermons and pamphlets, he has written Changing Creeds and Social Struggles (London, 1893) and Courage of the Coward, and other Sermons in Liverpool (1905). Akiba AKIBA, ??-kî´b??: Jewish rabbi, said to have lived in Jerusalem in the time of the Second Temple, and to have devoted himself to the study of the law when somewhat advanced in years. After the destruction of Jerusalem he retired to the neighborhood of Jaffa and also undertook extensive travels. He was executed during the Jewish insurrection under Hadrian (c. 133); but there is no proof that he was active in the revolt, or took any part in it except to recognize Bar-Kokba as the Messiah (in accordance with Num. xxiv. 17). Jewish tradition assigns as the cause of his death, that he taught the law when it was forbidden to do so. Many sayings are transmitted in Akiba's name. He defended the sacred character of the Song of Songs, which he interpreted allegorically (cf. F. Buhl, Kanon and Text, Leipsic, 1891, pp. 28-29; E. König, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, Bonn, 1893, p. 450). He paid special attention to the development of the traditional law; a Mishnah is known under his name; and to his school no doubt belong the fundamental elements of the present Mishnah. His exegetical method found meaning even in the particles and letters of the law (cf. M. Mielziner, Introduction to the Talmud, Cincinnati, 1894, pp. 125-126, 182-185; H. L. Strack, Einleitung in den Thalmud, Leipsic, 1894, pp. 100-104). The Greek translation of the Old Testament by Aquila (said to have been Akiba's pupil) seems to have been influenced by such an exegesis (Buhl, Kanon und Text, pp. 152-155). The midrashic works Siphra on Leviticus, and Siphre on Deuteronomy, contain much material from Akiba's school. (G. Dalman). Bibliography: H. Grätz, Geschichte der Juden, vol. iv., Leipsic, 1893; H. Ewald, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, vii. 367, Göttingen, 1868; Akiba ben Joseph, in JE, i. 304 sqq. Akkad AKKAD. See [180]Babylonia, IV., § 11. Akominatos AKOMINATOS. See [181]Nicetas. Alacoque, Marguerite Marie ALACOQUE, MARGUERITE MARIE. See [182]Sacred Heart of Jesus, Devotion to. Alanus ALANUS, ?-l??´nus: Name of at least three writers of the twelfth century. 1. Alanus of Auxerre: Cistercian, abbot of Larivour from 1152 or 1153 to about 1167, bishop of Auxerre, and then for about twenty years monk at Clairvaux. He wrote a life of St. Bernard (in MPL, clxxxv.). 2. Alanus: Abbot of Tewkesbury. He wrote a life of Thomas Becket (ed. J. A. Giles, in PEA, 1845; MPL, cxc.), letters (MPL, cxc.), and sermons. 3. Alanus ab Insulis (Alain of Lille; often called Magister Alanus and Magister universalis): A native of Lille who taught in Paris. He was a man of wide and varied learning and combining philosophical studies and interests with strong adherence to the Church, forms an important connecting link between the earlier and the later scholasticism. His writings include: (1) Regulæ cælstis juris (called also Regulæ de sacra theologia or maximæ theologia). Like other sciences which have their principles, the supercælestis scientia is not lacking in maxims. These are here laid down in a series of brief sentences, partly put in paradoxical form with minute elucidations. The work has a strong leaning toward Platonism, and contains some very peculiar thoughts. (2) Summa quadripartita adversus huius temporis hæreticos, which indicates by its title the ecclesiastical position of the author. The first book is directed against the Cathari, opposes their dualism and docetism, and defends the sacraments of the Church. The second book denies (chap. i.) the right (claimed by the Waldensians) to preach without ecclesiastical commission; insists upon the duty of obeying implicitly the ecclesiastical superiors, and of making confession to the priest (chaps. ii.-x.); justifies indulgences and prayers for the dead (chaps. xi.-xiii.); and denies that swearing in general is prohibited and that the killing of a person is under all circumstances sinful (chap. xviii.). (3) De arte prædicandi, a homiletic work which starts with the definition that "preaching is plain and public instruction in morals and faith, aiming to give men information, and emanating from the way of reason and fountain of authority." It tells how to preach on certain subjects, as on mortal sins and the virtues, and how to address different classes. (4) Less certainly genuine are the five books De arte catholicæ fidei, whose style is somewhat different. The work makes the peculiar effort to demonstrate the ecclesiastical doctrine not only in a generally rational but by a strictly logical argumentation in modum artis. The fundamental thought is striking; but the execution is sometimes weak, and the definitions are so made that the inferences become what the author wishes to prove. (5) De planctu naturæ, in which Alanus gives, partly in prose, partly in rhyme, a picture of the darker side of the moral conditions of the time. (6) Anticlaudianus, a more comprehensive work, deriving its title from the fact that the author wished to show the effects of virtues as Claudian showed those of vices. It is a kind of philosophico-theological encyclopedia in tolerably correct hexameters which are not devoid of poetic feeling. S. M. Deutsch. Bibliography: (1) L. Janauschek, Origines Cistercienses, Vienna, 1877; (3) Opera, in MPL, ccx.; the oldest notices are in Otto of St. Blasien, Chronicon, under the year 1194, MGH, Script., xx. (1868) 326, Alberic of Trois-Fontaines, ib. xxiii. (1874) 881, Henry of Ghent, De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis ch. xxi.; cf. Oudin, Commentarius de scriptoribus ecclesiæ, ii. 1387 sqq., Leipsic. 1772; Histoire littéraire de la France, xvi. 396 sqq.; C. Bäumker, Handschriftliches zu den Werken des Alanus, 1894 (reprinted from the Philosophisches Jahrbuch of the Görres-Gesellschaft, vi and vii, Fulda, 1893-94); M. Baumgartner, Die Philosophie des Alanus ab Insulis Münster, 1896; J. E. Erdmann, Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie, §170, 2 vols., Berlin, 1895-96. Alaric ALARIC. See [183]Goths, § 3. A Lasco, Johannes A LASCO, JOHANNES. See [184]Lasco. Alb ALB: A vestment worn by Roman Catholic priests in celebrating mass, and prescribed also for the Church of England by the first prayer-book of Edward VI. ("a white albe plain, with a vestment or cope"). See [185]Vestments and Insignia, Ecclesiastical. The name was applied also to the white garments worn by the newly baptized in the early Church; and from this, since Easter was the usual time for baptism, came the name for the Sunday after Easter, Dominica in albis (sc. depositis). Alban, Saint, of Mainz ALBAN, SAINT, OF MAINZ: Alleged martyr of the fourth or fifth century, whose existence is somewhat doubtful. The oldest form of the story (Rabanus Maurus, Martyrologium, June 21; MPL, cx. 1152) is that he was sent by Ambrose from Milan in the reign of Theodosius I. (379-395) to preach the gospel in Gaul, and was beheaded at Mainz on the way. Numerous details were added later. On the supposed site of his burial, to the South of the city, a church was erected in his honor, which is mentioned as early as 758. In it in 794 Charlemagne buried his third wife, Fastrade. The edifice was subsequently rebuilt (796-805); and probably at this time it was made a Benedictine house. In 1419 it was changed to a knightly foundation, to which Emperor Maximilian I. in 1515 gave the privilege of coining golden florins (called "Albanusgulden"), with the effigy of the saint arrayed in eucharistic vestments and carrying his head in his hand--a not uncommon method of representing martyrs who had been beheaded, to indicate the manner of their death. The foundation was destroyed when Margrave Albert of Brandenburg ravaged Mainz in 1552. (A. Hauck). Bibliography: Goswin (canon of Mainz), Ex passione S. Albani martyris Moguntini, in MGH, Script., xv. 2 (1888), 984-990; J. G. Reuter, Albansgulden, Mainz, 1790; Rettberg, KD, i. 211; Friedrich, KD, i. 314. Alban, Saint, of Verulam ALBAN, SAINT, OF VERULAM: A martyr of the Britons, often mistakenly called "the protomartyr of the English." Bede (Hist. eccl., i. 7), doubtless following some unknown acts of St. Alban, says that while still a pagan he gave shelter to a fugitive clerk during the Diocletian persecution; impressed by his guest's personality, he embraced Christianity, and when the clerk was discovered, wrapped himself in the fugitive's cloak and gave himself up to the authorities in his stead; he was scourged and condemned to death, performed miracles on the way to execution, and suffered on June 22; the place of his martyrdom was near Verulamium (St. Albans, Hertfordshire), and after the establishment of Christianity a magnificent church was erected there to his memory. Later accounts elaborate the narrative, and confuse the saint with others named Albanus or Albinus. It is said that the martyr served seven years in the army of Diocletian, and the name of the clerk is given as Amphibalus (first by Geoffrey of Monmouth), probably from his cloak (Lat. amphibalus). It seems certain that a tradition of the martyrdom of some Albanus existed at Verulamium as early as the visit of Germanus in 429 (Constantius's life of Germanus, i. 25), and there is no reason to deny its truth. But that the martyrdom took place in the Diocletian persecution is first intimated by Gildas (ed. Mommsen, MGH, Chronica minora, iii. 31) and is probably a guess. For Aaron and Julius of Carleon-on-Usk, whose names are joined by Gildas with that of Alban, no local tradition can be shown earlier than the ninth century. Bibliography: Haddan and Stubbs, Councils, i. 5-7; Wattenbach, DGQ, ii. 497; W. Bright, Chapters of Early English Church History, pp. 6-9, Oxford, 1897. Albanenses ALBANENSES, al´´b?-nen´sîz or -sês: A faction of the Cathari. They derived their name from Albania, and maintained, in opposition to the Bogomiles of Thracia and the Concorezenses of Bulgaria and Italy, an absolute dualism, by which good and evil were referred to two eternally opposite and equally potent principles. See [186]New Manicheans, II. Albati ALBATI. See [187]Flagellation, Flagellants, II., § 5. Alber, Erasmus ALBER, ??l´ber, ERASMUS: Theologian and poet of the German Reformation; b. in the Wetterau (a district to the n.e. of Frankfort) about 1500; d. at Neubrandenburg (75 m. n. of Berlin) May 5, 1553. He studied at Mainz and Wittenberg, and was much influenced by Luther, Melanchthon, and Carlstadt. After teaching in several places, in 1527 he became pastor at Sprendlingen (15 m. s.w. of Mainz), in the Dreieich, where for eleven years he worked diligently for the extension of Reformation doctrines and made himself known as a writer. He was an extravagant admirer of Luther, and possessed a very sharp tongue, which he used as unsparingly against Reformers who did not agree with him as against Roman Catholics. Erratic tendencies grew upon him with years, and, after leaving Sprendlingen, he moved about much and was at times in want. Shortly before his death he was made pastor and superintendent at Neubrandenburg. His writings, though often rude and coarse, were forceful and popular. They include: a rhymed version of Æsop's Fables, made at Sprendlingen (ed. W. Braune, Halle, 1892); Der Barfüsser Mönche Eulenspiegel und Alcoran (with preface by Luther, Wittenberg, 1542; Eng. transl., 1550), a satire directed against the Minorites, based upon a work of [188]Bartolomeo Albizzi; and Wider die verfluchte Lehre der Carlstadter, Wiedertäufer, Rottengeister, Sakramentlästerer, Eheschänder, Musicverächter, Bilderstürmer, Feyerfeinde, und Verwüster aller guten Ordnung, published three years after his death. Of more permanent value are his hymns (ed. C. W. Stromberger, Halle, 1857), of which Nun freut euch Gottes Kinder all is used in German hymn-books and in English translation (O Children of your God, rejoice). (T. Kolde). Bibliography: F. Schnorr von Carolsfeld, Erasmus Alber, Dresden, 1886; Julian, Hymnology, pp. 34-35; H. Barge, Andreas Bodenstein von Karlstadt, i. 370 sqq., 491 sqq., ii. 512 sqq., et passim, Leipsic, 1905. Alber, Matthæus ALBER, MATTHÆUS: The "Luther of Swabia"; b. at Reutlingen (20 m. s. of Stuttgart) Dec. 4, 1495; d. at Blaubeuren (30 m. s.e. of Stuttgart) Dec. 2, 1570. He was the son of a well-to-do goldsmith, took his master's degree at Tübingen in 1518, and was immediately called as pastor to his native city. On Melanchthon's recommendation he received a scholarship, enabling him to continue his studies for three years longer. Dissatisfied with the scholastic theology at Tübingen, he went to Freiburg in 1521, but soon returned to Reutlingen, where he boldly preached Luther's doctrine and established the new teaching. At Easter, 1524, he abolished the Latin mass and auricular confession. The same year he married, and when brought to account at Esslingen secured an acquittal by skilful management, although the bishop continued to trouble him because of his marriage till 1532. The Reformation made steady progress in Reutlingen; and in 1531 a church order with presbyterial government was introduced. During the Peasant's War Reutlingen was unmolested. The fugitive Anabaptists from Esslingen were won over by instruction and mildness. Zwingli endeavored to bring over Alber to his view of the Lord's Supper, but the latter adhered to Luther, preserving his independence, however, and remaining on friendly terms with Zwingli's friends, Blarer, Butzer, Capito, and others. In 1534 Duke Ulrich of Württemberg called Alber as preacher to Stuttgart with a view of introducing the Reformation there. In 1536 Alber went to Wittenberg, where he preached (May 28) and assisted in finishing the Concordia. In 1537 at the Colloquy of Urach he advised cautious procedure with regard to the removal of the images. As he opposed the introduction of the interim in 1548, he was obliged to give up his office and leave the city. For a time he lived at Pfullingen, protected by Duke Ulrich who in Aug., 1549 called him as first preacher of the collegiate Church of Stuttgart and general superintendent. He took an active part in the preparation of the Württemberg Confession and the church order of 1553, and he attended both the latter part of the Second Colloquy at Worms (1557) and the Synod of Stuttgart. Toward the end of 1562 he was made abbot of the reformed monastery at Blaubeuren. G. Bossert. Bibliography: J. Fixion, Cronika von Reutlingen, ed. A. Bacmeister. Stuttgart, 1862; F. G. Gayler, Denkwürdigkeiten der Reichsstadt Reutlingen, Reutlingen, 1840; J. Hartmann, Matthäus Alber, Tübingen, 1863; G. Bossert, Der Reutlinger Sieg, 1524, Barmen, 1894; idem, Interim in Württemberg, Halle, 1895; R. Schmid, Reformationsgeschichte Württembergs, Heilbronn, 1904. Albert of Aix ALBERT OF AIX: A historian of the twelfth century, designated in the manuscript of his Historia expeditionis Hierosolymitanæ as canonicus Aquensis, but whether he was a canon of Aix in Provence or of Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) is uncertain. It is likely, however, since he dates events by the years of Henry IV., that he was a Lorrainer rather than a Provençal. He may be the custos Adalbertus who is mentioned for the last time in 1192, and, in this case, he must have written his history in early youth. His work tells nothing of his personality, except that he had an ardent desire, which was never fulfilled, to visit the Holy Land. As a sort of compensation, he determined to write the events of the years 1095-1121 from the narratives of actual crusaders. His credibility was generally accepted until the middle of the nineteenth century, but since then it has been seriously questioned. It is probable that the work is based upon mere hearsay. The Historia is in MPL, clxvi., and in Recueil des historiens des Croisades, hist. occid., iv. (Paris, 1879) 265-713. (A. Hauck). Bibliography: H. von Sybel, Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzugs, pp. 62-107, Leipsic, 1881; B. Kugler, Albert von Aachen, Stuttgart, 1885; F. Vercruysse, Essai critique sur la chronique d'Albert d'Aix, Liége, 1889; Wattenbuch, DGQ, ii. 178-180. Albert ALBERT, antipope, 1102. See [189]Paschal II., pope. Albert V. of Bavaria and the Counter Reformation In Bavaria ALBERT V. OF BAVARIA AND THE COUNTER REFORMATION IN BAVARIA: Albert V., duke of Bavaria (b. Feb. 29, 1528; d. Oct. 24, 1579), was the son of Duke William IV., whom he succeeded in 1550. The rulers of Bavaria had remained faithful to the Roman Catholic Church during the progress of the Reformation; but in spite of their endeavors the new ideas gained many adherents among both the nobility and the citizen class. Albert was educated at Ingolstadt under good Catholic teachers. In 1547 he married a daughter of Emperor Ferdinand I., the union ending the political rivalry between Austria and Bavaria. Albert was now free to devote himself to the task of establishing Catholic conformity in his dominions. Incapable by nature of passionate adherence to any religious principle, and given rather to a life of idleness and pleasure, he pursued the work of repression because he was convinced that the cause of Catholicism was inseparably connected with the fortunes of the house of Wittelsbach. He took little direct share in the affairs of government and easily lent himself to the plans of his advisers, among whom during the early part of his reign were two sincere Catholics, Georg Stockhammer and Wiguleus Hundt. The latter took an important part in the events leading up to the treaty of Passau (1552) and the peace of Augsburg (1555). The real beginning of the Counterreformation in Bavaria may be dated from 1557, when the Jesuits first established themselves in the duchy. In summoning them to Bavaria Albert and his advisers were actuated by the desire to use their services as educators in raising the mass of the clergy from their condition of moral and intellectual stagnation. The Jesuits speedily made themselves masters of the University of Ingolstadt and through the chancellor, Simon Thaddäus Eck, exercised a predominant influence at court. Eck was ably seconded by his associates, who obtained control of the education of the youth and of the clergy, and by their preaching and writings checked the spread of the reformed ideas among the masses of the people. Till 1563 concession still had a part in the programme of the leaders, who hoped that the bestowal of communion in both kinds upon the laity and the abolition of celibacy in the priesthood would bring back many to the fold. Political events, however, led to an abandonment of the conciliatory policy. In 1563 Joachim, Count of Ortenburg, introduced the Augsburg Confession in his dominions, which he held as a direct fief of the empire. Albert discerned in this act a serious menace to the integrity of Bavaria, and took possession of the principality. Thenceforth the reformed religion, as closely connected with political insubordination, was made the object of a ruthless persecution. The opposition of the nobility was speedily overcome, and conformity to the teachings of the Church was enforced under pain of exile. By means of frequent visitations among the clergy and the people, the reorganization of the school system, the establishment of a strict censorship, and the imposition upon all public officials and university professors of an oath of conformity with the decisions of the Council of Trent, heresy was completely stamped out in Bavaria before 1580. The progress of the Counterreformation in the empire was materially helped by Bavaria. Albert made his territory a refuge for Catholic subjects of Protestant rulers and was urgent in counseling Emperor Maximilian II. against concessions to the Protestants. At his death Bavaria was the stronghold of the Catholic reaction in Germany, and next to Spain, the most formidable opponent of the Reformed faith in Europe. Walter Goetz. Bibliography: J. G. J. Aretin, Bayerns auswärtige Verhälnisse, Passau, 1839; S. Sugenheim, Baierns Kirchenund Volks-Zustände, Giessen, 1842; M. Lossen, Kölnische Krieg, Gotha, 1882; C. Rüpprecht, Albrecht V. von Baiern und seine Stände, Munich, 1883; M. Ritter, Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Gegenreformation, i. 238 sqq., 300 sqq., Stuttgart, 1889; A. Knöpfler, Die Kelchbewegung in Bayern unter Herzog Albrecht V., Munich, 1891; S. Riesler, Zur Würdigung Herzogs Albrechts V. von Bayern, ib. 1891; W. Goetz, Die bayerische Politik im ersten Jahrzehnt der Regierung Albrechts V., ib. 1896; idem, Beiträge zur Gesch. Herzog Albrechts V., ib.1898; C. Schellhass, Die Süddeutsche Nuntiatur des Grafen Bartholomäus von Portia, Berlin, 1896; S. Riezler, Geschichte Baierns, vol. v., Gotha, 1903; K. Hartmann, Der Prozess gegen die protestantischen Landstände in Bayern unter . . . Albrecht V., Munich, 1904; W. Goetz, Die angebliche Adelsverschwörung gegen Albrecht V., in Forschungen zur Geschichte Baierns, xiii., 1905. Albert of Brandenburg ALBERT OF BRANDENBURG: Elector of Mainz and archbishop of Magdeburg; b. June 28, 1490; d. at Mainz Sept. 24, 1545. He was the second son of Johann Cicero, elector of Brandenburg, and brother of the future elector, Joachim I. Through family influence he became canon of Mainz, at the age of eighteen. In 1513 he was made archbishop of Magdeburg and administrator of Halberstadt, and in 1514, having received holy orders, archbishop and elector of Mainz. Having promised to pay personally the sum of at least 20,000 gold gulden for the pallium, he was forced to borrow from the Fuggers in Augsburg. To recoup himself, he obtained (Aug.15, 1515) from Pope Leo X. the privilege of preaching indulgences--ostensibly decreed for the building of St. Peter's in Rome--in his province for eight years, making a cash payment of 10,000 gulden and promising for the future one half of the annual revenues. He admitted that the transaction was a money-making affair, and when the preaching began commissioners representing the Fuggers accompanied the preachers to collect their share. Albert was a child of the Renaissance, interested in art, with a decided fondness for costly buildings, and deserves praise as a patron of the new literature. He admired Erasmus, protected Reuchlin, and drew Hutten to his court. Nevertheless, on May 17, 1517, he issued an edict against the press and appointed the reactionary Jodocus Trutvetter inquisitor for his entire province. When the way indulgences were preached raised a storm, his action was characteristic. On Oct. 31, 1517, Luther sent to him a respectful letter on the subject, and his ninety-five theses. Albert put the matter aside and left the letter unanswered; he had no conception of Luther's motives and views, and desired not to be troubled. Later, when he tried to interfere, he found that his influence was gone. At the Diet of Augsburg in 1518 he was made cardinal. After the death of the Emperor Maximilian (1519) he worked effectively for the election of Charles V. As regards Luther he continued to follow the advice of Erasmus (in a letter of Nov. 1, 1519), to have as little as possible to do with him, if he cared for his own tranquillity. So long as his personal interests did not suffer, he found it easy to be tolerant. When Luther, at the wish of his elector, wrote a second letter (Feb. 4, 1520), Albert replied quite in the spirit of Erasmus. He did not interfere when Hutten issued his anonymous anti-Roman pamphlets, and he showed himself unfriendly to the mendicant friars. But when papal legates brought him (Oct., 1520) the Golden Rose and definite orders concerning Hutten and Luther, he was ready at once to expel the former from his court and to burn the latter's books. After the Diet of Worms (1521) Albert pretended to favor certain reforms, and many, like Carlstadt, put confidence in him. Luther, however, addressed to him a letter from the Wartburg (Dec. 1, 1521), threatening to attack publicly his "false god," the indulgences, if the sale did not cease, and to expose him before the world. Albert yielded as a matter of policy, and because no other course was open to him. He was also unable to prevent the introduction of the Reformation into Erfurt and Magdeburg. He was not on good terms with his chapter in Mainz, and during the Peasants' War the city made a compact with the peasants. It was suspected that he had in mind to follow the example of his cousin in Prussia (see [190]Albert of Prussia) and to secularize his bishopric--a course which Luther openly (in a letter of June 2, 1525) called upon him to take. On the same day, however, the peasants were defeated at Königshofen, and the immediate danger being over, Albert made an alliance with Luther's most determined opponents, Joachim of Brandenburg and George of Saxony, for mutual protection and for the extermination of the Lutheran sect. For a time he continued to oppose the evangelical movement in a half-hearted way, requesting his subjects to abide by the old teaching of the Church. He introduced some outward changes in opposition to the Reformation, but without effect; his territory became smaller; and his influence in the kingdom grew less. The so-called alliance of Halle with his brother Joachim and other Catholic princes in 1533 could not retard the movement. His opposition in Dessau was in vain (1534). Even in Halle, his own city, he could not hinder the victory of the Reformation proved by the call of Justus Jonas in 1541. As early as 1536 Albert anticipated coming events, by removing his valuable collections of objects of art to Mainz and Aschaffenburg; and in 1540 he left Halle forever. In 1541 he urged the emperor at Regensburg to proceed against the Protestants with arms, if he really meant to be emperor; otherwise it were better if he had stayed in Spain. Albert had become, possibly under Jesuit influence, the most violent of the princely opponents of the Reformation. He met with continual disappointments, however, and steadily became more isolated. He took a deep interest in the Council of Trent, and appointed his legates in Apr., 1545, but did not live to see its opening. His last years were harassed by quarrels with his chapter and the importunities of his creditors, and he died, after long sufferings, alone, forsaken, and almost in want. The fine buildings which he erected at Mainz and Halle and his monument by Peter Vischer, in the abbey church at Aschaffenburg were the only memorials of his life which he left to posterity. (T. Kolde). Bibliography: J. H. Hennes, Albrecht von Brandenburg, Mainz, 1858; J. May, Der Kurfürst, Kardinal und Erzbischof Albrecht II. von Mainz und Brandenburg, 2 vols., Munich, 1865-75; A. Wolters, Der Abgott zu Halle, Bonn, 1877; H. Gredy, Kardinal und Erzbischof Albrecht II. von Brandenburg in seinem Verhältnisse zu den Glaubensneuerungen, Mainz, 1891; G. F. Hertzberg, Geschichte der Stadt Halle, vol. ii., Halle, 1891; P. Redlich, Cardinal Albrecht von Brandenburg und das neue Stift zu Halle, Mainz, 1900. Albert the Great ALBERT THE GREAT. See [191]Albertus Magnus. Albert of Prussia ALBERT OF PRUSSIA. Early Life and Conversion to Protestantism (§ 1). Intercourse with Luther and Melanchthon and Aid to the Reformation (§ 2). Progress of the Reformation (§ 3). Reorganization of Ecclesiastical Affairs (§ 4). His Visitation and its Consequences (§ 5). Ordinances of 1540 and 1544 (§ 6). Later Efforts in Behalf of the Reformation (§ 7). 1. Early Life and Conversion to Protestantism. Albert, margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, last grand master of the Teutonic order, first duke of Prussia, founder of the Prussian national Church, was born at Ansbach (25 m. s.w. of Nuremberg) May 17, 1490; d. at Tapiau (23 m. e. of Königsberg) Mar. 20, 1568. He was the third son of the Margrave Frederick the Elder of Brandenburg-Ansbach, received a knightly education at various courts, and was made a canon of the Cologne Cathedral. In 1508, with his brother Casimir, he took part in the Emperor Maximilian's campaign against Venice. He was elected grand master of the Teutonic order Dec. 15, 1510, was invested with the dignity of his office in 1511, and made his solemn entry into Königsberg in 1512. His efforts to make his order independent of Poland (to which it had owed fealty since the peace of Thorn, 1466) involved him in a war with the Polish king, which devastated the territory of the order until a truce for four years was made in 1521. Albert then visited Germany and tried in vain to obtain the help of the German princes against Poland. While attending the Diet of Nuremberg in 1522-23 he heard the sermons of Andreas Osiander (whom he afterward called his "father in Christ"), and associated with others of the reformed faith in that city. By such influence, as well as by the writings of Luther from the year 1520, he was won to the new teaching and openly avowed his convictions. 2. Intercourse with Luther and Melanchthon and Aid to the Reformation. In June, 1523, he addressed a confidential letter to Luther, requesting his advice concerning the reformation of the Teutonic order and the means of bringing about a renewal of Christian life in its territory. In reply Luther advised him to convert the spiritual territory of the order into a worldly principality. In Sept., 1523, he visited the Reformer at Wittenberg, when Luther again advised him, with the concurrence of Melanchthon, to put aside the foolish and wrong law of the order, to enter himself into the estate of matrimony, and to convert the state of the order into a worldly one. This interview was the beginning of an intimate connection between Albert and the two Reformers of Wittenberg, and was immediately followed by Luther's Ermahnung an die Herren Deutschen Ordens falsche Keuschheit zu meiden und zu recten ehelichen Keuschheit zu greifen. With the advice and help of Luther, Albert provided pure Gospel preaching for his capital by calling thither such men as [192]Johann Briessmann and [193]Paulus Speratus. Johannes Amandus, called about the same time as Briessmann, while a popular and gifted preacher, proved a fanatic and agitator, and was obliged to leave the city and country in 1524. His place was taken by [194]Johannes Poliander. Authorized by Albert, [195]Bishop George of Polentz, who favored the Reformation, sent learned men to preach through the country; and evangelical writings, supplied by Albert's friend, Georg Vogler, chancellor of his brother at Ansbach, were carefully disseminated. At Christmas, 1523 George of Polentz openly embraced the new faith; and the next year, with the consent of his sovereign, he advised the ministers not only to preach the pure Gospel, but also to use the German language at the administration of baptism and the Lord's Supper. At the same time he recommended the reading of Luther's writings, and declared excommunication to be abrogated. 3. Progress of the Reformation. The cause made steady progress in Königsberg. Briessmann delivered free lectures to the laity and ministers, aiming to promote a knowledge of the gospel; Speratus preached to large crowds; and a newly established printing-office published various evangelical writings, especially the sermons and pamphlets of Briessmann and Speratus. Abuses and unevangelical elements in divine service and in the inner constitution of the churches, images and altars serving the worship of saints, the multitude of masses and the sacrifice of the mass, were abolished. A common treasury was established for the aid of the poor. The reformatory movement acquired new impetus from the conversion of a second Prussian Prelate, Erhard of Queiss, bishop of Pomesania, who, under the title Themata issued a Reformation-programme in his diocese for the renewal of the spiritual life on the basis of the pure Gospel. The most important of all, however, was the carrying out of Luther's advice with regard to the transformation of the territory of the order into a hereditary secular duchy under the suzerainty of Poland, after the period of the truce had expired and peace had been made with Poland. On Apr. 10, 1525, the formal investiture of Albert as duke of Prussia took place at Cracow, after he had sworn the oath of allegiance to King Sigismund. Toward the end of the following month he made his solemn entry into Königsberg and received the homage of the Prussian Prelates, the knights of the order, and the states. On July 1, 1526, he was married in the castle of Königsberg to the Danish princess Dorothea, like himself a faithful adherent of the Gospel. 4. Reorganization of Ecclesiastical Affairs. A reorganization of ecclesiastical affairs on the basis of the existing episcopal constitution now took place. The two bishops, George of Polentz and Erhard of Queiss, who were separated from Rome by their evangelical faith and reformatory activity, married. As the first evangelical bishops they confined themselves to purely ecclesiastical functions--ordination, visitation, inspection, and the celebration of marriage. The duke, as evangelical sovereign, felt himself obliged in publicly professing the Reformation and reserving the right to call a diet for regulating the affairs of the Church, to issue a mandate (July 6, 1525) requesting the ministers to preach the Gospel in all purity and Christian fidelity, and to testify against the prevailing superstition, as well as against the widespread godless and immoral drunkenness, lewdness, cursing, and frivolous swearing. The first diet to regulate the affairs of the Church was held in Dec., 1525, at Königsberg. The result was the Landesordnung, which regulated the appointment and support of ministers, the filling of vacancies, the observance of the feast-days, the appropriation of moneys received for the churches, for pious foundations, and for the poor. The Landesordnung contained also regulations for divine service, drawn up by the bishops and published by Albert (Mar., 1526) under the title Artikel der Ceremonien und andere Ordnung. 5. His Visitation and Its Consequences. For the better regulation of existing evils, Albert, in agreement with the bishops, appointed a commission of clerical and lay members, to visit the different parishes, to investigate the life and work of the ministers, and, where necessary, to give them instruction and information. The result of this visitation, the first in Prussia, was such that in a mandate dated Apr. 24, 1528, Albert recommended the two bishops to continue such visitations in their dioceses and to impress upon the ministers their task with reference to doctrine and life. That such supervision might be permanent he ordered the appointment of superintendents. For the benefit of the many non-Germans, the ministers were supplied with translators of the preached word. Albert recommended Luther's Postilla as pattern for the preaching of the Gospel and caused a large number of copies to be distributed among the ministers. He also ordered quarterly conferences under the presidency of the superintendents, and in July, 1529, he authorized the bishops to arrange synodical meetings, at which questions pertaining to faith, doctrine, marriage, and other matters of importance to the pastoral office were considered. He induced Speratus (who had succeeded Queise as bishop of Pomesania) to prepare an outline of doctrines, which was published under the title Christliche statuta synodalia, and distributed among the ministers as the sovereign's own confession, as is indicated by the preface, dated Jan. 6, 1530. This precursor of the Augsburg Confession the bishops assigned to the ministers in 1530 as their canon of doctrine. It was of special importance during a crisis brought on by the duke. Influenced by his friend Friedrich von Heideck, he favored the teachings of the enthusiast [196]Kaspar Schwenckfeld, whom he met at Liegnitz, and gave appointments to his adherents. The new ordinances of the bishops were at first not heeded. A colloquy held at Rastenburg in Dec., 1531, under the presidency of Speratus brought about no satisfactory results. Luther's representations, at first unsuccessful, finally evoked the duke's prohibition of the secret or public preaching or teaching of the enthusiasts; at the same time he stated that he allowed his subjects liberty in matters of faith, since he would not force a belief upon the people. His eyes were finally opened by the Anabaptist disorders at Münster (see [197]Münster, Anabaptists in) and he saw the political danger of such fanaticism. In Aug., 1535, he issued a mandate to Speratus enjoining him to preserve the purity and unity of doctrine. He renewed his assurance to his brother, Margrave George, "that he and his country wished to be looked upon as constant members in the line of professors of the Augsburg Confession," and to this assurance he remained faithful to the end. 6. Ordinances of 1540 and 1544. In 1540 Albert issued an ordinance treating of the many evils in the life of the people and their cure, and another concerning the election and support of the ministers, their widows and orphans, as a supplement to the Landesordnung of 1525. Assisted by the two bishops, he made a tour of inspection in the winter of 1542-43 to obtain a true insight into the religious and moral condition of the country. Toward the end of this tour, he issued (Feb., 1543) a mandate in the German and Polish languages, exhorting the people to make diligent use of the means of grace and admonishing those of the nobility who despised the word and the sacrament. Each house had to appoint in turn an officer to keep watch, from an elevated place, over the church attendance. Besides the Sunday pericopes the minister was to spend a half-hour in explaining the catechism. During the week devotional meetings were to be held in the houses, at which the people were to be examined as to their knowledge of the word of God. To maintain the episcopal constitution Albert, in a memorandum of 1542, assured the continuance of the two ancient bishoprics with the provision that godly and learned men should always be chosen for them. To promote Church life he issued an Ordnung vom äusserlichen Gottesdienst und Artikel der Ceremonien (1544), supplementing the Artikel of 1525. To improve the service in the churches he required the schools to train the children in singing, and had a hymn-book prepared by Kugelmann, the court band-master. 7. Later Efforts in Behalf of the Reformation. Albert continued to correspond with Luther and Melanchthon, and many notes from his hand, remarks on the Psalms and the Pauline epistles, show how deeply he endeavored to penetrate into the Scriptures. To promote Christian culture he established a library in his castle, the basis of the public library founded by him in 1540. For the benefit of a higher evangelical education he established Latin high-schools, and founded at Königsberg a school which in 1544, with the assistance of Luther and Melanchthon, he converted into a university. As first rector he called Georg Sabinus, son-in-law of Melanchthon, but his character rather hampered the development of the institution. A still greater impediment was the appointment, in 1549, of the former Nuremberg reformer Andreas Osiander as first theological professor, his doctrine of justification calling forth controversies (see [198]Osiander, Andreas). After Osiander's death (1552), his son-in-law [199]Johann Funck gained such influence over the duke that he appointed none but followers of Osiander, whose opponents, headed by J. Morlin, were obliged to leave the country. The political and ecclesiastical confusion finally became so great that a Polish commission was forced to interfere, and in 1566 Funck and two of his party were executed as "disturbers of the peace, traitors, and promoters of the Osiandrian heresy." The former advisers of the duke were then reinstated. These painful experiences caused Albert to long for rest and the restoration of peace in Church and country. He recalled Mörlin and Martin Chemnitz, and, in consequence of a resolution of the synod, which met in 1567, to abide by the corpus doctrinæ of the Lutheran Church, he caused them to prepare the Corpus doctrinæ Pruthenicum (or Wiederholung der Summa und Inhalt der rechten allgemeinen christlichen Kirchenlehre-repetitio corporis doctrinæ christianæ) in which the Osiandrian errors were also refuted. This symbol, which was approved by the estates; Albert published with a preface, dated July 9, 1567, in which it was stated that "no one shall be admitted to any office in Church or school who does not approve of and accept it." After the settlement of the doctrinal questions, a revision of the former church-order was undertaken, the outcome of which was the Kirchenordnung und Ceremonien, published in 1568. The vacant episcopal sees of Pomesania and Samland were filled by the appointment of G. Venediger (Venetus) and J. Mörlin, respectively, after arrangements had been made with the estates as to the election, jurisdiction, and salary of the bishops, whereby the old episcopal constitution of the Prussian Church was established and assured. Thus, notwithstanding the trials of his last years, Albert saw the full development of the Evangelical Church in the duchy of Prussia, and quiet and peace restored before his death. He left a beautiful testimony of his evangelical faith in his testament for Albert Frederick, his son by his second wife, Anna of Brunswick, whom he had married in 1550. His last words were: "Into thy hands I commit my spirit, thou hast redeemed me, O Lord God of Truth." David Erdmann. Bibliography: Sources: M. Luther, Briefe, ed. by W. M. L. de Wette and J. K. Seidemann, 6 vols., Berlin, 1826-73; P. Melanchthon, Briefe an Albrecht Herzog von Preussen, ed. by K. Faber, Berlin, 1817; J. Voigt, Briefwechsel der berühmtesten Gelehrter des Zeitalters der Reformation mit Herzog Albrecht von Preussen, Königsberg, 1841; T. Kolde, Analecta lutherana, Gotha, 1883; P. Tschackert, Urkundenbuch zur Reformationsgeschichte des Herzogtums Preussen, vols. i.-iii. (vols. xliii-xiv. of Publikationen aus den k. preussischen Staats-Archiven, Berlin, 1890). General Literature: D. H. Arnold, Historie der Königsberger Universität, vol. i., Königsberg, 1746; idem, Kurzgefasste Kirchengeschichte von Preussen, ib. 1769; F. S. Bock, Leben und Thalen Albrechts des Aeltern, ib. 1750; L. von Baczko, Geschichte Preussens, vol. iv., ib. 1795; A. R. Gebser and C. A. Hagen, Der Dom zu Königsberg, ib. 1835; L. von Ranke, Deutsche Geshichte im Zeitalter der Reformation, vol. ii., Berlin, 1843, Eng. transl., new ed., Robert A. Johnson, London, 1905 (very good); W. Möller, Andreas Osiander, Elberfeld, 1870; ADB, vol. i.; K. A. Hase, Herzog Albrecht von Preussen und seine Hofprediger, ib.1879 (an elaborate monograph); K. Lohmeier, Herzog Albrecht von Preussen, Danzig, 1890; H. Prutz, Herzog Albrecht von Preussen, in Preussische Jahrbücher, lxvi. 2, Berlin, 1890; E. Joachim, Die Politik des letzten Hochmeisters in Preussen, Albrecht von Brandenburg, 3 vols., Leipsic, 1892-94; P. Tschackert, Herzog Albrecht von Preussen als reformatorische Persönlichkeit, Halle, 1894. Albert of Riga ALBERT OF RIGA: Founder of the German power among the Esthonians and Letts; d. at Riga Jan. 17, 1229. He was a nephew of Hartwig, archbishop of Bremen, and is first mentioned as canon in that city. In 1199 he was ordained bishop of Uexküll, in the territory of the Livonians, as the successor of Bishop Berthold (see [200]Berthold of Livonia) who had perished the previous year in an uprising of the pagan inhabitants. Though organized missionary work had been carried on among the Letts and the Livonians since 1184, they had shown themselves hostile to the new creed, and it fell to Albert to maintain his episcopal title and to spread the Gospel by the sword. Aided by a papal bull he succeeded in raising a large force of crusaders, and in the year 1200 appeared on the shores of the Dwina, where he met with little resistance from the Livonians. In 1201 he founded the town of Riga, and for the protection of his dominions and the extension of his conquests organized the [201]Order of the Brothers of the Sword, whose grand master was made subordinate to his authority. The Christianizing of the country was promoted by the introduction of Cistercian and Premonstrant monks, and by 1206 almost the entire Livonian population had been baptized. In 1207 Albert received Livonia as a fief from the German king, together with the title of "Prince of the Empire." Three years later he was confirmed by Innocent III. as bishop of the territories of the Livonians and the Letts, and, without receiving the dignity of archbishop, was granted the right to nominate and ordain bishops for such territorial conquests as might be made from the heathen peoples to the northeast. He now met with formidable rivalry from the Brothers of the Sword, whose grand master desired to make himself independent of the bishop. The Danes, also, by the acquisition of Lübeck in 1215, became a powerful factor in the politics of the eastern Baltic. Though forced for a time to make concessions to both, Albert by courage and a wise use of circumstances, succeeded in retaining his power unimpaired. From 1211 to 1224 vigorous campaigns were carried on against the heathen Esthonians to the northeast, who although sided by the Russian rulers of Novgorod and Pskov, were compelled to submit to the German power. The Danish influence speedily disappeared, and the Brothers of the Sword were forced in time to take their lands in Esthonia as a fief from Albert and from his brother Hermann, whom he had made bishop of southern Esthonia, with his seat at Dorpat. In 1227 the island of Oesel, the last stronghold of the heathen resistance and the refuge of pirates who held the eastern Baltic in terror, was overrun by a crusading army, and the conversion of the country was completed. Albert is a striking type of the militant ecclesiastic of the Middle Ages. In spite of his great services in the spread of Christianity in the Baltic lands, it is as the warrior, prince, and diplomat, rather than as bishop, that he stands out most prominently. (F. Lezius). Bibliography: Heinricus de Lettis, Chronicon Livoniæ, 1125-1227, in MGH, Script., xxiii. (1874) 231-332; K. von Schlözer, Livland und die Anfänge deutschen Lebens im Norden, Berlin, 1850; F. Winter, Die Prämonstratenser des zwölften Jahrhunderts, ib. 1865; idem, Die Cistercienser des nordöstlichen Deutschlands, Gotha, 1868; R. Hausmann, Das Ringen der Deutschen und Dänen um den Besitz Estlands, Leipsic, 1870; G. Dehio, Geschichte des Erzbistums Hamburg-Bremen, ii. 160 sqq., Berlin, 1877; T. Schiemann, Russland, Polen und Livland, in Allgemeine Geschichte, ii. 1 sqq., ib. 1887. Alberti, Valentin ALBERTI, ??l-b??r´-tî, VALENTIN: Lutheran; b. at Ulm (60 m. w.s.w. of Breslau), Silesia, Dec. 15, 1635; d. in Leipsic Sept. 19, 1697. He studied in the latter city and spent most of his life there, being professor extraordinary of theology from 1672. As a representative of the orthodoxy of his time he wrote against [202]Pufendorf and [203]Scheffling, but is noteworthy chiefly for his part in the Pietistic controversy. In Feb., 1687, he furnished a meeting-place in his house for the collegia philobiblica, which brought on the controversy in Leipsic (see [204]Pietism). Nevertheless, in 1696 he published an Ausführlicher Gegenantwort auf Speners sogenannte gründliche Vertheidigung seiner und der Pietisten Unschuld. Albertini, Johann Baptist von ALBERTINI, ??l´´ber-tî´nî, JOHANN BAPTIST VON: Moravian bishop; b. at Neuwied (on the Rhine; 8 m. n.n.w. of Coblenz) Feb. 17, 1769; d. at Bertheladorf, near Herrnhut, Dec. 6, 1831. He was educated at Neuwied, at Niesky (1782-85), and at the theological seminary of Barby (1785-88). From 1788 to 1810 he taught in the school at Niesky; from 1810 to 1821 he was preacher and bishop in Niesky, Gnadenberg, and Gnadenfrei (Silesia); in 1821 he became a member, and in 1824 president, of the Elders' Conference in the department for Church and school. He published: Predigten (1805); Geistliche Lieder (1821); and Reden (1832). Some of his spiritual songs are of rare beauty. He was a fellow student and friend of Schleiermacher. Albertus, Magnus ALBERTUS MAGNUS ("Albert the Great"): Founder of the most flourishing period of scholasticism; b. at Lauingen (26 m. n.w. of Augsburg), Bavaria, 1193; d. at Cologne Nov. 15, 1280. He studied at Padua, entered the order of St. Dominic there in 1223, and served as lector in the various convent schools of the order in Germany, especially in Cologne. In 1245 he went to Paris to become master of theology. In 1248 he returned to Cologne as primarius lector and regens of the school in that city. In 1254 a general chapter of the Dominican order at Worms chose him general for Germany, in which capacity he traversed the country on foot from end to end, visiting the monasteries and enforcing discipline. In 1260 Alexander IV. made him bishop of Regensburg; but this office was so little in harmony with his character and habits as a teacher and writer that, after the lapse of two years, he was allowed to resign. He retired to his monastery in Cologne, where he spent the rest of his life, making many brief visits, however, to other places; as when he went to Paris after he had reached the age of 80 to vindicate the orthodoxy of his late pupil, Thomas Aquinas. As an author Albert evinced a many-sidedness which procured for him the title of doctor universalia, while his knowledge of natural science and its practical applications made him a sorcerer in popular estimation. His works fill twenty-one folio volumes as published by P. Jammy (Lyons, 1651; reedited by A. Borgnet, 38 vols., Paris, 1890-1900). They embrace logic, physics, metaphysics and psychology, ethics, and theology. By the use of translations from the Arabic and Greco-Latin versions, he expounded the complete philosophical system of Aristotle, excepting the "Politics," modifying his interpretation in the interests of the Church. Thus the influence of Aristotle came to supersede Platonism and Neoplatonism in the later scholasticism. At a time when dialectic was in sore need of a new method, the introduction of the Aristotelian logic provided a subtle and searching instrument for investigation and discussion. For Albertus, logic was not properly a science, but an organon for reaching the unknown by means of the known. Following Avicenna whom he regards as the leading commentator of Aristotle, he affirms that universals exist in three modes: (1) Before the individuals, as ideas or types in the divine mind (Plato). (2) In the individuals, as that which is common to them (Aristotle). (3) After the individuals, as an abstraction of thought (conceptualists and nominalists). Thus he seeks to harmonize the rival teachings concerning universals. In expounding the physical theories of Aristotle, he showed that he partook of the rising scientific spirit of the age, especially in his criticism of alchemy and in De vegetabilibus et plantis, which abounds in brilliant observations. The chief theological works of Albertus were a commentary (3 vols.) on the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard, and a Summum theologiæ in a more didactic strain. Already the "doctrine of the twofold truth" had been accepted by his contemporaries--what is truth in philosophy may not be truth in theology, and vice versa. Christian thinkers were, however, profoundly perplexed by the sharp opposition between ideas drawn from Greek scientific and philosophical sources and those derived from religious tradition. Albertus sought to soften this antinomy by establishing the distinction between natural and revealed religion, which became henceforth a postulate of medieval and later theology. Since the soul can know only that which is grounded in its own nature, it rises to the mystery of the Trinity, the Incarnation, and other specifically Christian doctrines through supernatural illumination alone. Hence the well-known dictum: "Revelation is above but not contrary to reason." On the one hand, the attempt to "rationalize" the contents of revelation must be abandoned; on the other hand, philosophy must be modified in the interests of faith. The merit which belongs to faith consists in its accepting truth which comes only through revelation. In his entire discussion concerning the being and attributes of God, concerning the world as created in time in opposition to the eternity of matter as maintained by Aristotle, concerning angels, miracles, the soul, sin and free-will, grace, and finally, original and actual sin, the Aristotelian logic is applied in the most rigid manner, and when this fails Albertus retires behind the distinction thrown up between philosophy and theology. With all his learning and subtlety of argument, he made it evident that with his presuppositions and by his method a final adjudication of the claims of reason and faith, that is, a unity of intelligence, is impossible. Apart from his vast erudition, his significance lay first, in his profound influence upon scholastic and the subsequent Protestant theology through his substitution of the Aristotelian logic and metaphysics for Platonic and Neoplatonic ideas, and secondly, in the fact, that to a degree never before attempted, he set in clear light and organized in the thought of the Church the ancient opposition between Jewish supernaturalism and Greek rationalism. By the false antithesis thus raised between reason and revelation, he prepared the way for the long conflict of theology and science, of reason and dogma, of naturalism and supernaturalism, of individual judgment and collective authority, which is still unsettled. C. A. Beckwith. Bibliography: J. Sighart, Albertus Magnus, sein Leben und seine Wissenschaft, Ratisbon, 1857, Eng. transl., London, 1876; B. Gauslinus, Albertus Magnus, Venice, 1630; F. A. Pouchet, Histoire des sciences naturelles au moyen-âge, ou Albert le Grand et son époque, Paris, 1853; M. Joel, Verhältniss Albert des Grossen zu Moses Maimonides, Breslau, 1863; O. d'Assailly, Albert le Grand, Paris, 1870; W. Preger, Geschichte der deutschen Mystik im Mittelalter, Leipsic, 1874; Albertus Magnus in Geschichte und Sage, Cologne, 1880; G. von Hertling, Albertus Magnus, ib. 1880; R. de Liechty, Albert le Grand et S. Thomas d'Aquin, Paris, 1880; J. Bach, Des Albertus Magnus Verhältniss zu der Erkenntnisslehre der Grischen, Late ner, Araber und Juden, Vienna, 1881; A. Schneider, Die Psychologie Alberts des Grossen, Münster, 1903. For his philosophy: A. Stöckl, Geschichte der scholastischen Philosophie, 3 vols., Mains, 1864-66; J. E. Erdmann, Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie, i., 4th ed.,1895, Eng. transl., vol. i., London, 1893. Albigenses. ALBIGENSES. See [205]New Manicheans, II. Albizzi, Antonio ALBIZZI, ??l-bit´sî or ??l-bît´sî, ANTONIO: Italian priest; b. in Florence Nov. 25, 1547; d. at Kempten (50 m. s.s.w. of Augsburg), Bavaria, July 17, 1626. He became secretary to Cardinal Andrew, archduke of Austria (1576), but after the death of the latter (1591) embraced Protestantism, left Italy, and resided thenceforth in Augsburg and Kempten. He wrote: Principium Christianorum stemmata (Augsburg, 1608); Sermones in Matthæum (1609); De principiis religionis Christianæ (1612); and Exercitationes theologicæ, Kempten, 1616). Albizzi, Bartolomeo ALBIZZI, BARTOLOMEO (Lat. Bartholomæus Albicius Pisanus): Franciscan monk; b. at Rivano, Tuscany; d. at Pisa Dec. 10, 1401. He became a celebrated preacher, and taught theology in several monasteries, chiefly at Pisa. He wrote a famous book, Liber conformitatum vitæ Sancti Francisci cum vita Jesu Christi, which was approved by the general chapter of his order in 1399 and was first printed at Venice toward the close of the fifteenth century. It is of great value for the history of the Franciscans, but is marred by exaggerations and lack of judgment and good taste (e.g., he states that Francis was foretold in the Old Testament by prototypes and prophecies, that he performed miracles and prophesied, and that he was crucified and is exalted above the angels). In subsequent editions many passages were modified or omitted. [206]Erasmus Alber made it the basis of his Barfüsser Mönche Eulenspiegel und Alcoran (published at Wittenberg, with an introduction by Luther, 1542). Albizzi published also sermons and a life of the Virgin Mary (Venice, 1596). Albo, Joseph ALBO, JOSEPH: The last noteworthy Jewish religious philosopher of the Middle Ages; b. at Monreal (125 m. e.n.e. of Madrid), Spain, about 1380; d. about 1444. He was one of the principal Jewish representatives at the disputation held in 1413 and 1414 at Tortosa, under the auspices of Benedict XIII., between selected champions of the Jewish and Christian religions, with the view of convincing the Jews, from the testimony of their own literature, of the truth of Christianity. About 1425, at Soria in Old Castile, he wrote his principal work of religious philosophy, Sepher ha-I??arim ("Book of the Roots," i.e., "Fundamental Principles"). He finds three ideas fundamental in any religion, viz., God, Revelation, and Retribution. [In the idea of God he finds four secondary principles, unity, incorporeality, eternity, and perfection; in the second of his fundamentals he finds three secondary principles, prophecy, Moses as the unique prophet, and the binding force of the Mosaic Law; and from his third fundamental he derives secondarily the belief in the resurrection of the body.] He discusses also the distinguishing marks of the historic religions, attempting to prove that Judaism is differentiated from Christianity by its greater credibility and consonance with reason. Belief in a Messiah he considers an essential part not of Judaism, but of Christianity. There is a German translation of his work by W. and L. Schlesinger (Frankfort, 1844). (G. Dalman). Bibliography: M. Eisler, Vorlesungen über die jüdische Philosophie des Mittelalters, iii. 186-234, Vienna 1876; H. Gräts, Geschichte der Juden, 3d ed., viii. 168-178, Berlin, 1890, Eng transl., London 1891-98, A. Tänzer, Die Religions-Philosophie Joseph Albo's, Frankfort, 1896; JE, i. 324-327. Albrecht ALBRECHT, ??l´breHt. See [207]Albert. Albrecht, Otto Wilhelm Ferdinand ALBRECHT, OTTO WILHELM FERDINAND: German Lutheran; b. at Angermünde (42 m. n.e. of Berlin) Dec. 2, 1855. He was educated at the gymnasium in Potsdam, at the University of Halle (1873-77), and at the Wittenberg seminary for preachers. He was assistant pastor at Wittenberg in 1880-81, and pastor at Stödten in 1881-84, at Dachwig in 1884-92, and at Naumburg (Saale) from 1892 to the present time. He was elected a corresponding member of the Königliche Akademie gemeinnütziger Wissenschaften in 1895. His theological position is that of a modern Lutheran. His writings include Geschichte der Magdeburger Bibelgesellschaft (1892); Die evangelische Gemeinde Miltenberg und ihr erster Prediger (Halle, 1896); Predigten (Gotha, 1899); Geschichte der Marien-Magdalenenkirche zu Naumburg a. S. (1902); and Das Enchiridion Luthers vom Jahre 1536 herausgegeben und untersucht (1905). He has also been a collaborator on the Weimar edition of the works of Luther, to which he has contributed the fifteenth and twenty-eighth volumes, containing the reformer's writings of 1524 and his sermons on John in 1528-29 (Weimar, 1898-1903). He is likewise a collaborator on the Brunswick edition of Luther, and is the author of numerous briefer monographs and contributions. Albright, Jacob ALBRIGHT, ??l´brait, JACOB: Founder of "the Evangelical Association of North America;" b. near Pottstown, Penn., May 1, 1759; d. at Mühlbach, Lebanon County, Penn., May 18, 1808. His parents were Pennsylvania Germans of the Lutheran Church, in which denomination he was himself trained. His education was defective, and his early surroundings were unintellectual. After marriage he moved to Lancaster County and carried on a successful tile and brick business. Grief over the death of several children in one year (1790) and the counsels of Anton Hautz, a German Reformed minister, led to his conversion, and he became a Methodist lay preacher. At length his concern for his German Lutheran brethren led him to give up business and devote himself entirely to missionary efforts. As the Methodist Church did not desire to enter upon the German field he founded a new denomination. Its members are often called the "Albright Brethren." See [208]Evangelical Association. Alcantara, Order of ALCANTARA, ??l-c??n´t?-r??, ORDER OF: A spiritual order of knights, with Cistercian rule, founded for the defense of the frontier of Castile against the Moors under Alfonso VIII., the Noble (1158-1214). Its name at first was Order of San Julian del Pereiro ("of the pear-tree"), from a Castilian frontier citadel, the defense of which was entrusted to two brothers, Suarez and Gomez Barrientos, who with Bishop Ordonius (Ordosio) of Salamanca (1160-66) founded the order. When Alcantara in Estremadura was taken by King Alfonso IX. of Leon in 1213, the seat of the order was transferred to that place. Alfonso committed the defense of this important fortress at first to the knightly order of [209]Calatrava, but five years later he transferred the service to the Order of San Julian, which now (1218) took the name of the Order of Alcantara, being still subject, however, to the grand master of the Calatrava order. Taking advantage of a contested election, it separated from the Calatrava order, and elected its first independent grand master in the person of Diego Sanchez. During the subsequent struggles with the Moors, in which the Alcantara knights distinguished themselves by their bravery, they had on their flag the united arms of Leon and Castile, with a cross of the order and the ancient emblem of the pear-tree. The number of their commanderies in their days of prosperity was about fifty. When Juan de Zuñiga, the thirty-eighth grand master (1479-95) resigned his office to become archbishop of Seville, the grand mastership passed to the king of Castile (Ferdinand the Catholic). With its independent existence the order lost more and more its spiritual character. In consequence of the disturbances in the Spanish monarchy, it was abolished in 1873, but was re-established in 1874 as a purely military order of merit by Alfonso XII. O. Zöckler. Bibliography: Rades de Andrada, Cronica de las tres Ordines y Caballerias de Santiago, Calatrava y Alcantara, Toledo, 1572; Difiniciones de la orden y cavalleria de Alcantara, Madrid, 1663; Helyot, Ordres monastiques, vi. 53-65; P. B. Gams, Kirchengeschichte von Spanien, iii. 55-56, Ratisbon, 1876. Alcimus ALCIMUS. See [210]High Priest. Alcuin ALCUIN, al´cwin (English name, Ealhwine; Lat. Flaccus Albinus): The most prominent adviser of Charlemagne in his efforts to promote learning; b. in Northumbria (perhaps in York) 735 (730 ?); d. at Tours May 19, 804. He was of good birth and a relative of Willibrod. He was educated in the famous cathedral school of [211]Archbishop Egbert of York, under a master, Ethelbert (Albert), who seems to have been a man of many-sided learning and who is often praised by Alcuin. With him, or commissioned by him, Alcuin made several visits to Rome, and on such journeys became acquainted with Frankish monasteries and with men like Lul of Mainz and Fulrad of St. Denis. He succeeded Ethelbert as head of the school when the latter was made archbishop (766), and, after Ethelbert's retirement and the elevation of Eanbald to the archiepiscopal throne (778), was also custos of the valuable cathedral library at York. He went to Rome to obtain the pallium for Eanbald, and at Parma (781) met Charlemagne to whom he was already known. Shortly after his return to England he accepted a call from the Frankish king, who was then gathering scholars at his court, and, with the exception of a visit to his native land on political business in 790-793, spent the rest of his life on the Continent. Charlemagne gave him the income of several abbeys, and till 790 he acted as head of a court school, where not only the sons of the Frankish nobles, but Charlemagne and his family as well, profited by his instruction. A true scholar and teacher, Alcuin seldom meddled in worldly affairs, and his letters (more than 300 in number) give little historical information, though they are rich in personal details. He took an active part in the Adoptionist controversy, wrote two treatises against Felix of Urgel, and opposed his colleague, Elipandus. At the Synod of Frankfort in 794 he assisted in the condemnation of Felix, and later, at the Synod of Aachen in 799 (800?), induced him to recant (see [212]Adoptionism). From 793 he was the constant and efficient helper of Charlemagne in founding schools, promoting the education of the clergy, and like undertakings. He was also in close association with contemporaries like Arno of Salzburg, Angilbert, abbot of Centula, and Adalhard of Corbie. In 796 his patron gave him the abbey of St. Martin, near Tours, and several other monasteries. Under his guidance the school of Tours became a nursery of ecclesiastical and liberal education for the whole kingdom. His distinguished pupils there included Sigulf, who supplied the information for his biography, Rabanus Maurus, and perhaps the liturgist, Amalarius of Metz. When old and feeble and almost blind, he left the management to his scholars, but he continued to be the counselor of his royal friend till his death. Alcuin was mild in spirit, adverse to discord, orthodox in faith, equally interested in promoting the authority of Rome and the royal priesthood of Charlemagne. His great service was his part in the so-called Carolingian renaissance, his wise and efficient efforts to elevate and educate the clergy and the monks, to improve preaching, to regulate the Christian life of the people and advance the faith among the heathen, always by instruction rather then by force. His theology, while not original, rests on an intimate acquaintance with the Fathers, especially Jerome and Augustine. To ecclesiastical learning he added classical, but in such manner that it was always the servant of the former. He was able to give his master information concerning astronomy and natural science but, as he considered grammar and philosophy auxiliary to religion, so he regarded these branches of knowledge primarily as a means of knowing God. His theological writings include a work on the Trinity which contains the germs of the later scholastic theology. His authorship of a Libellus de processu Spiritus Sancti and of some other works which have been attributed to him is doubtful. He wrote commentaries on Genesis, the Psalms, the Song of Songs, John, and other books of the Bible, based upon the Church Fathers and following the current moral and allegorical exposition. At Charlemagne's request he revived the text of the Vulgate according to the best available sources. His skill as a teacher is evident in text-books on grammar and orthography, as well as in treatises on rhetoric and dialectics which resemble Cicero. His Latin poems, including epigrams, friendly letters, hymns, riddles, poems for special occasions, and the like, show more skill in versification than poetic gifts. The most important, the De pontificibus et sanctis ecclesiæ Eboracensis, gives valuable information concerning the state of culture in his native land and his own education [and contains (II. 1530-61) a catalogue of the cathedral library at York, which is the earliest existing catalogue of an English library]. With the exception of the hymns, all his poems are partly in heroic and partly in elegiac verse. He prepared lives of Willibrod, Vedastus, and Richarius, which are mainly recasts and amplifications of older works. Of a liturgical and devotional character are a Liber sacramentalis and the De psalmorum usu. Intended more particularly for the laity are the De virtutibus et vitiis and a psychologico-philosophical treatise on ethics, De animæ ratione ad Eulaliam virginem (i.e., Guntrade, the sister of Adalhard). H. Hahn. Bibliography: Sources: Alcuin, Opera, ed. by Frobenius Forster, 2 vols., Ratisbon, 1777, contains anonymous life written before 829 A.D. on data furnished by Sigulf; reprinted in MPL, c.-ci.; Monumenta Alcuiniana, ed. by W. Wattenbach and E. Dümmler, in BRG, vi., Berlin, 1873 (contains life of Alcuin, his life of Willibrod, and his De pontificibus); Alcuin, Epistolæ, in MGH, Epist., iv. 1-481 (Epist. Caroli ævi, ii.), 1895, and in BRG, 1873, vi. 144-897; idem, Carmina, in MGH, Poetæ latini ævi Caroli, i. (1881) 160-350; idem, De pontificibus, in Historians of the Church of York and its Archbishops, ed. by J. Raine, i. 349-398 (cf. pp. lxi.-lxv. of Rolls Series, No. 71, London, 1879); Martinus Turonensis, Vita Alcuini Abbatis, in MGH, Script., xv. 1 (1887), 182-197. General: Rivet, in Histoire littéraire de la France, iv. 295-347; F. Lorents, Alcuins Leben, Halle, 1829, Eng. transl., London, 1837; J. C. F. Bähr, Geschichte der römischen Literatur im karolingischen Zeitalter, pp.78-84, 192-196, 302-354, Carlsruhe, 1840; J. B. Laforêt, Alcuin, restaurateur des sciences en occident sous Charlemagne, Louvain, 1851; F. Monnier, Alcuin et son influence littéraire, religieuse et politique chez les Franks, 2d ed., Paris, 1864; A. Dupuy, Alcuin et l'école de Saint-Martin de Tours, Tours, 1876; idem, Alcuin et la souveraineté pontificale au huitiéme siècle, ib.1872; F. Hamelin, Essai sur la vie et les ouvrages d'Alcuin, Rennes, 1874; ADB, i. 343-348; T. Sickel, Alcuinstudien, i. 92, Vienna, 1875; J. B. Mullinger, The Schools of Charles the Great, ch. i.-ii., New York, 1904; DCB, i. 73-76; A. Ebert, Allgemeine Geschichte der Litteratur des Mittelalters, ii. 12-36, Leipsic, 1880; K. Werner, Alcuin und sein Jahrhundert, 2d ed., Vienna, 1881; S. Abel and B. Simson, Jahrbücher des fränkischen Reichs unter Karl dem Grossen, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1883; A. Largeault, Inscriptions métriques composées par Alcuin, Poitiers, 1885; DNB, i. 239-240; L. Traube, Karolingische Dichtungen, Berlin, 1888; Hauck, KD, ii. 119-145; W. S. Teuffel, Geschichte der römischen Literatur, p. 1090, No. 8, p. 1305, No. 3, Leipsic, 1890; Wattenbach, DGQ, 1893, pp. 148, 152, 159-163; A. West, Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools, New York, 1893; C. J. B. Gaskoin, Alcuin, his Life and Work, Cambridge, 1904. Aldebert ALDEBERT. See [213]Adalbert. Aldenburg, Bishopric of ALDENBURG, BISHOPRIC OF. See [214]Lübeck, Bishopric of. Aldhelm Saint ALDHELM (EALDHELM), ??ld´helm, SAINT: Abbot of Malmesbury and first bishop of Sherborne; b. probably at Brokenborough (2 m. n.w of Malmesbury), Wiltshire, between 639 and 645; d. at Doulting (7 m. s.e. of Wells), Somersetshire, May 25, 709. He was of royal family on both his father's and mother's side, studied with Maildulf (Maelduib), an Irish hermit, at Malmesbury (Maildulfsburg), and remained there as monk for fourteen years. In 670 and again in 672 he attended the school of Canterbury and laid the foundations of his many-sided knowledge under the instruction of Archbishop Theodore and his associate Hadrian. In 675 he succeeded Maildulf as abbot at Malmesbury, and as such increased the possessions of the monastery, spread abroad the faith, and founded many stone churches, after the fashion of Canterbury, in place of the small wooden ones. In 705 the bishopric of the West Saxons was divided, Aldhelm being made bishop of the western part with his seat at Sherborne (in northwestern Dorsetshire, 18 m. n. of Dorchester). He retained his abbacy. He was buried at Malmesbury, but his remains were often translated. He was canonized in 1080. Aldhelm was one of the most learned men of his time, and he occupies a distinguished place among early British scholars. He represented both the Iro-Scottish and the Roman ecclesiastical culture, and had an acquaintance with classical authors like Homer and Aristotle, as well as with neo-Christian writers such as Prudentius and Sedulius. His works abound in Greek and Latin words, and his style is bombastic. Besides philology, poetry, music, astronomical calculations, and the like occupied him, and he is said to have written popular hymns. He made Malmesbury a rival of Canterbury as a seat of learning, and princes, abbesses, monks, and nuns from far and near were among his admirers. He is said to have visited Rome during the pontificate of Sergius (687-701) and to have returned with relics, books, and a grant of privileges for his monastery. He supported [215]Wilfrid of York against his enemies, and was prominent in urging the Britons to conform to the Roman tonsure and Easter. Besides briefer letters, preserved (often only in fragments) by Lul of Mainz, Aldhelm's works include treatises in epistolary form and poems, viz.: (1) an Epistola ad Acircium (King Aldfrid) concerning the number seven, riddles, versification, and the like; (2) an Epistola ad Geruntium (a Welsh prince, Geraint) concerning the Easter question; (3 and 4) a prose work and a poem in praise of virginity, addressed to the abbess and nuns of Barking, closing with a description of eight vices, which contains thrusts at Anglo-Saxon conditions. To his treatise on riddles he added 100 specimens dealing with nature and art, which are full of a feeling for nature, being herein a prototype of such of his countrymen as Tatwin and Boniface. In his letter to Geraint he holds as worthless good works without connection with the Roman Church. His poetry is flowery, involved, and alliterative. His chief merit was the extension of the faith in the south of England, the education of his native land, and his literary influence on the Continent. H. Hahn. Bibliography: Aldhelmi Opera, in PEA, No. 583, Oxford, 1844, reprinted in MPL, lxxxix.; Epistolæ, in P. Jaffé, BRG, iii. 24-28, Berlin, 1866, and in MGH, Epist., iii. (1892) 231-247; William of Malmesbury, De gestis pontificum Anglorum, ed. N. E. S. A. Hamilton, in Rolls Series, No. 52, pp. 332-443, London, 1870, and in MPL, clxxix.; idem, De Gestis Regum Anglorum, 1887-89, in Rolls Series, No. 90; Faricius, Vita Aldhelmi, in J. A. Giles, Vita quorundam Anglo-Saxonum, London, 1854, and in MPL, lxxxix. (Faricius was an Italian, physician to Henry I, of England, a monk of Malmesbury, and abbot of Abingford); Bede, Hist. eccl., v. 18; J. M. Kemble, Codex diplomaticus ævi Saxonici, London, 1839; T. Wright, Biographia Britannica litteraria, i. 209-222, ii. 47, ib. 1851; Eulogium historiarum, 1858, in Rolls Series, No. 9; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 1861, ib. No. 23; Registrum Malmesburiense, 1879, ib. No. 72; DNB, i. 78-79, 245-247; H. Hahn, Boniface und Lul, ihre angelsächsischen Korrespondenten, Leipsic, 1883; M. Manitius, Zu Aldhelm und Bæda, Vienna, 1886 (on Aldhelm's literary work); L. Traube, Karolingische Dichtungen, Berlin, 1888; W. S. Teuffel, Geschichte der römischen Literatur, 1304, § 500, No. 2, Leipsic, 1890; L. Boenhoff, Aldhelm von Malmesbury, Dresden, 1894; W. Bright, Early English Church History, pp. 294-297, 444-446, 462-469, 471-474, Oxford, 1897; W. B. Wildman, Life of St. Ealdhelm, Sherborne, 1905. Aleandro, Girolamo ALEANDRO, GIROLAMO, ??´´lê-??n´drO jî-rO´l??-mO (Lat. Hieronymus Aleander): Italian humanist and cardinal; b. at Motta (30 m. n.e. of Venice) Feb. 13, 1480; d. in Rome Jan. 31, 1542. He studied in his native town and in Venice, settled in the latter city as a teacher in 1499, and became a contributor to the press of Aldus Manutius. In 1508 he went to Paris and there attained great reputation as a classical scholar, being chosen in 1513 rector of the university. In the following year he went to Liége where the influence of Bishop Erard made him chancellor of the see of Chartres. As Erard's representative he went to Rome in 1516 and won the favor of Cardinal Giulio de' Medici, whose private secretary he became. Later, Leo X. appointed him librarian to the Vatican. In 1520 he went as nuncio to the court of Emperor Charles V., charged with the task of combating the heretical teachings of Luther. He procured Luther's condemnation at the Diet of Worms in 1521, and is supposed to have been the author of the edict issued against the great reformer. He was made archbishop of Brindisi in 1524 and was sent as nuncio to the court of Francis I. of France, with whom he was taken prisoner at Pavia. Till 1531 Aleandro lived without employment, in Venice for the greater part of the time, a refugee from Rome on account of his debts. In 1531 he was sent as papal representative to Charles V., whom he accompanied to the Netherlands and Italy, zealous in inciting the emperor to action against the Protestants. After residing as nuncio in Venice from 1533 to 1535 he was summoned to Rome by Pope Paul III., who, in preparation for a general council, wished to avail himself of Aleandro's historical learning. His services gained him a cardinal's hat in 1538, in which year he went as legate to Venice where the projected council was to be held. Thence he was sent to the court of the German king Ferdinand where he at first exerted himself in favor of a conciliatory policy toward the Protestants, and, when his efforts failed, demanded their ruthless destruction. Of his writings the reports covering his various diplomatic missions are of extreme value for the history of the Reformation. His letters also are of importance, among his correspondents being Aldus Manutius, Erasmus, Ulrich von Hutten, Bembo, Contarini, and Cardinal Pole. His diaries are remarkable for their frank revelation of a life of indulgence in complete contrast with his priestly character. (T. Brieger). Bibliography: His papers, declarations, and letters are scattered in A. Mai, Spicilegium Romanum, ii. 231-240, Rome, 1839; H. Læmmer, Monumenta Vaticana, pp. 77 sqq., 223-241, Freiburg, 1861; J. J. I. von Döllinger, Beiträge zur politischen, kirchlichen und Culturgeschichte, iii. 243-284, Vienna, 1882; P. Balan, Monumenta Reformationis Lutheranæ, 1 sqq., 335 sqq.; P. de Nolhac, Studi e Documenti di Storia a Diritto, ix. 208-217, Rome, 1888; B. Morsolin, Il Concilio di Vicenza, Venice, 1889; W. Friedensburg, Legation Aleanders 1538-39, in Nuntiaturberichte aus Deutschland, vols. iii.-iv., Gotha, 1893; H. Omont, Journal autobiographique du . . . J. Aléandre, pp. 35-98, 113 sqq., Paris, 1895. The foregoing are important for the history of the Reformation. For his life: W. Friedensburg, ut sup. iii. 28-41, 44, and Preface, pp. v.-vii.; C. Perocco, Biografio del cardinale G. Aleandri, Venice, 1839. In general: K. Jansen, Aleander am Reichstage zu Worms, Kiel, 1883; G. M. Massuchelli, Gli Scrittori d'Italia, I. i. 406-424, Brescia, 1753; T. Brieger, Aleander und Luther 1521, part 1, Gotha, 1884. Alegambe, Philippe D' ALEGAMBE, ??´´lê-g??mb´, PHILIPPE D': Jesuit theologian and literary historian; b. in Brussels Jan. 22, 1592; d. in Rome Sept. 6, 1652. He entered the Jesuit order at Palermo in 1613, taught theology at Graz, and accompanied the son of Prince von Eggenberg, the favorite of Ferdinand II., on his travels. Then he returned to Graz for a time, but in 1638 was called to Rome as secretary for German affairs to the general of his order. Here he remained until his death, acting in later years as spiritual director of the Roman house. Of his writings the most noteworthy is the Bibliotheca scriptorum societatis Jesu (Antwerp, 1643), based upon an earlier catalogue of Jesuit writers by Peter Ribadeneira (1608, 1613), but much surpassing it in learning and thoroughness. Though betraying the Jesuit spirit, it shows, on the other hand, signs of an attempt at impartiality, proving, for example, that various books against the royal power, the episcopate, and the Sorbonne, the authorship of which the French Jesuits had tried to deny, were really written by them. A new and enlarged edition by an English Jesuit, Nathaniel Southwell, appeared at Rome in 1676. The work is now superseded by the Bibliothèque des Écrivains de la Compagnie de Jésus of Augustin and Aloys de Backer (7 vols., Liége, 1853-61; new ed. by C. Sommervogel, 9 vols., Brussels, 1890-1900). (A. Hauck). Alemanni ALEMANNI, ??´´lê-m??n´nî: Early History. An important Germanic tribe, first mentioned by Dio Cassius as fighting a battle with Caracalla near Mainz in 213. According to Asinius Quadratus, they belonged to the confederacy of the Suevi. They came from the northeast, where the Semnones held the territory between the Oder and the Elbe. They had varying success in their struggle against the Romans, but about 260-268 they occupied the Tithe Lands, north of the Danube, and advanced south as far as Ravenna and east into what is now Early Austria. They fought with Maximian in 290, and obtained permanent possession of the territory extending to the Alb and the Neckar about 300. By 405 or 406 they had conquered the southern plains of Upper Swabia and the neighboring lands of northern and eastern Switzerland, as far as the Vosges. In the fifth century the region from the Iller to the Vosges and from the lower Main to the St. Gothard bore the name of Alemannia. They were a fierce and stubborn race, hostile to Roman civilization, and possessing a religion closely connected with the powers of nature. In the Tithe Lands they must have met with at least weak Christian congregations, which fell with the Roman power. Conversion to Christianity. The numerous captives who were led away from Christian Gaul had little influence after they were deprived of Christian nurture. The Alemanni, however, learned Christian views. Their prince, Gibuld, was an Arian, probably converted by Goths. The Augsburg bishopric was maintained; but the Alemanni in general continued heathen till they were overcome at Strasburg in 496 by Clovis, king of the Franks. He took their northern territory and established royal residences there. A part of the people went into the country of the Ostrogoth Theodoric, probably the present German Switzerland, where the bishoprics of Windisch and Augst (Basel) existed and the Roman population was Christian. In 536 Vitiges ceded this territory to the Frankish king Theodebert. Effective missionary work was carried on by the newly converted Franks from St. Martin's Church at Tours as a center; and churches dedicated to Saints Martin, Remigius, Brictius, Medard, Lupus, Antholianus, Clement, Felix, and Adauctus indicate the Frankish influence. In the courts the Frankish priest ruled beside the royal administrator. As early as 575 the Greek Agathias hoped for a speedy victory of Christianity among the Alemanni, because the "more intelligent" of them had been won by the Franks. Duke Uncilen (588-605) was probably, and his successor Cunzo was certainly, a Christian. The oldest law of the Alemanni, the so-called pactus of c. 590-600 recognizes the Church as the protector of slaves. The episcopal see of Windisch was transferred to Constance, nearer Ueberlingen, the ducal seat; and the Augsburg bishopric was separated from Aquileia, that of Strasburg coming again into prominence. Irish Missionaries. But heathenism was still powerful. Many of the new converts still sacrificed to the gods. The Frankish Church was not influential enough to permeate the popular life of the Alemanni. But efficient help came from the Celtic missionaries of Ireland. In 610 [216]Columban, on the suggestion of King Theodebert, ascended the Rhine with monks from Luxeuil and settled at Bregenz, but had to leave after two years. His pupil Gallus, however, the founder of the monastery of [217]St. Gall, remained, and in connection with the native priests labored for the cause of Christ. From Poitiers came the Celt [218]Fridolin, founder of the monastery of Säckingen. Trudpert built a cell in the Breisgau. As the Merovingians sank lower and lower the desire of the Alemanni for independence grew, and they found need of the support of the Church in their struggle for liberty. Unwilling to see themselves surpassed in devotion by the despised Franks, they made rich donations to St. Gall. The Lex Alemannorum, drawn up probably at a great assembly under Duke Lantfried in 719, gave the Church and its bishops a position of dignity and power, though the life of the people was still far from being thoroughly influenced by its moral teaching. The effort for independence was crushed by the strong arm of the mayor of the palace. To balance St. Gall, which had favored it, Charles Martel, with the help of [219]Pirmin, founded the monastery of Reichenau in 724. Pirmin was expelled in 727, and his pupil and successor Heddo a few years later. The entire people were then baptized, but they had no clear knowledge of the Christian faith and were still influenced by heathen customs. The organizing work of Boniface was at first opposed in Alemannia, but by 798 the people had begun to make pilgrimages to Rome. Several small monasteries were established, and, besides St. Gall and Reichenau, the royal monasteries of Weissenburg, Lorsch, and Fulda received rich gifts. The distinguished Alemanni who filled bishoprics under the Carolingians, and Hildegard, the queen of Charlemagne, with her brother, Gerold, evidence the ultimate triumph of Christianity. G. Bossert. Bibliography: C. F. Stälin, Württembergische Geschichte, vol. i., Stuttgart, 1841; Rettberg, KD; Friedrich, KD; H. von Schubert, Die Unterwerfung der Alamannen, Strasburg, 1884; G. Bossert, Die Anfänge des Christentums in Württemberg, Stuttgart, 1888; A. Birlinger, Rechtsrheinisches Alamannien; Grenzen, Sprache, Eigenart, Stuttgart, 1890; E. Egli, Kirchengeschichte der Schweiz bis auf Karl den Grossen, Zürich, 1893; Württembergishe Kirchengeschichte of the Calwer Verlagsverein, 1893; Hauck, KD, i. 2; F. L. Baumann, Forschungen sur Schwabischen Geschichte, 500-585, Kempten, 1899. Alesius, Alexander ALESIUS, ?-lî´shi-us, ALEXANDER (Latinized form of Aless; known also as Alane): Protestant reformer; b. in Edinburgh Apr. 23, 1500; d. in Leipsic Mar. 17, 1565. He studied at St. Andrews and became canon there. In 1527 he tried to induce [220]Patrick Hamilton to recant, attended him at the stake the next year, and was himself converted to the reformed doctrines. To escape from the harsh treatment of the provost of St. Andrews he fled to Germany (1532). Commended to Henry VIII. and Cranmer by Melanchthon, he went to England in 1535. For a short time he lectured on divinity at Cambridge, studied and practised medicine in London, and was much esteemed by the reforming party there till 1540, when he went back to Germany and became professor at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, removing three years later to Leipsic. He was closely associated with the German reformers, especially Melanchthon, and was honored and trusted by them, although a desire to conciliate and a belief that concord was possible where differences were irreconcilable made him sometimes appear vacillating and paradoxical. He wrote several exegetical works on different books of the Bible, and a large number of dogmatic and polemical treatises, such as De scripturis legendis in lingua materna (Leipsic, 1533); De autoritate verbi Dei (Strasburg, 1542), against Bishop Stokesley of London concerning the number of the sacraments; De justificatione contra Osiandrum (Wittenberg, 1552); Contra Michaelem Servetum ejusque blasphemias disputationes tres (Leipsic, 1554). Bibliography: J. Thomasius, Oratio de Alexandro Alesio, in his Orationes, Leipsic, 1683; T. Beza, Icones, Geneva, 1580; C. Wordsworth, Ecclesiastical Biography, vol. ii., London, 1853; T. McCrie, Life of John Knox, Note 1, London, 1874; DNB, i. 254-259. Alexander ALEXANDER: The name of eight popes. Alexander I.: Bishop of Rome in the early years of the second century, successor of Evaristus and predecessor of Xystus I. The statement of the Liber pontificalis (ed. Duchesne, i. xci.-xcii., 54) and the Acta Alexandri (ASB, May, i. 371-375) that he died a martyr, with two companions, Eventius and Theodulus, and was buried on the Via Nomentana, is improbable. The excavations made on the spot designated by the Liber pontificalis have indeed led to the discovery of a fragment of an inscription concerning a martyr Alexander, but he is not called a bishop. The year of Alexander's consecration is variously given: Eusebius names 103 in his Chronicon, and 108 in his Historia ecclesiastica; the Catalogue Liberianus, 109. The year of his death is given as 114, 116, and 118. Three letters falsely ascribed to him are in the Pseudo-Isidore (ed. Hinschins, Leipsic, 1863, pp. 94-105). (A. Hauck). Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, i. xci. sqq., 54, Paris, 1886; Bower, Popes, i. 10; R. A. Lipsius, Die Chronologie der römischen Bischöfe, pp. 167 sqq., Kiel, 1869; B. Jungmann, Dissertationes selectæ in Hist. eccl., i. 134 sqq., Regensburg, 1880; J. Langen, Geschichte der römischen Kirche, Bonn, 1881; Jaffé, Regesta, i. 5. Alexander II. (Anselm Badagius, sometimes called Anselm of Lucca): Pope Sept. 30, 1061-Apr. 21, 1073. He was born of a noble family at Baggio, near Milan. When the Patarene movement for reform began in 1056 (see [221]Patarenes), he seems to have joined it. The archbishop Guido removed him by sending him on an embassy to the imperial court. Here he won the confidence of Henry III., which gained for him the bishopric of Lucca (1057). He was sent to Milan in 1057 and 1059 as legate in connection with the questions raised by the Pataria. On the death of Nicholas II. (1061), he was elected pope through Hildebrand's influence. This was in direct contravention of the imperial rights, confirmed by Nicholas II. himself in 1059. The empress Agnes, as regent, convoked an assembly of both spiritual and temporal notables at Basel, and Cadalus of Parma was chosen pope by the German and Lombard bishops. He assumed the title of Honorius II., and had already defeated the adherents of his rival in a bloody battle under the walls of Rome, when Godfrey of Lorraine appeared and summoned both claimants to lay the election before the young king Henry IV. At a synod of German and Italian bishops held at Augsburg in Oct., 1062, Hanno of Cologne, now regent, arranged that his nephew Burchard of Halberstadt should be sent to Rome to examine the case and make a preliminary decision. Burchard decided in favor of Alexander, who returned to Rome in the beginning of 1063, and held a synod at Easter, in which he excommunicated Honorius. The final decision of the contest was to be made at a synod of German and Italian bishops called for Pentecost, 1064, at Mantua. This was in favor of Alexander. See [222]Honorius II., antipope. Honorius did not abandon his pretensions until his death in 1072, though his power was confined to his diocese of Parma. Even during the contest, Alexander had exercised considerable authority over the Western Church, and after the decision at Mantua he extended his claims in Germany, and put Archbishop Hanno of Cologne to penance for having visited Cadalus on a secular errand. Henry IV. himself was made to feel the papal power. When he desired to effect a divorce from his wife Bertha, Peter Damian threatened him with the severest ecclesiastical penalties at a diet held in Frankfort Oct., 1069. Alexander also came into conflict with Henry over several ecclesiastical appointments, of which the most important was the archbishopric of Milan, and when the king persisted in having his candidate Godfrey consecrated, though the pope had adjudged the latter guilty of simony, the royal counselors were excommunicated as having endeavored to separate their master from the unity of the Church. This was but the beginning of the long struggle which was left to the next pope, Gregory VII. Alexander dealt in a similarly determined manner with other nations. He supported the Normans, both in the north and south of Europe, in their career of conquest, and aided William the Conqueror to consolidate his newly gained power in England by directing his legate to appoint Normans to the episcopal sees of that country; the archbishopric of Canterbury was given to Lanfranc, abbot of Bec, under whom Alexander himself had received his early training. His wide claims of universal jurisdiction were in sharp contrast with his weakness within Rome itself, where the turbulent factions maintained an unceasing struggle against him as long as he lived. His letters and diplomas are in MPL, cxlvi. 1279-1430. (A. Hauck). Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, ii. 281, Paris, 1892; Jaffé, Regesta, i. 566-592, ii. 750; Gesta Alexandri II., in Bouquet, Recueil, xiv. 526-531; W. Giesebrecht, Die Kirchenspaltung nach dem Tode Nikolaus II., appended to his Annales Altahenses, Berlin, 1841; Bower, Popes, ii. 370-377; M. Watterich, Romanorum pontificum . . . vitæ, i. 235-236, Leipsic, 1862; C. Will, Benzos Panegyricus auf Heinrich IV. mit . . . Rücksicht auf den Kirchenstreit Alexanders II. und Honorius II., Marburg, 1863; R. Baxmann, Die Politik der Päpste von Gregor I. bis auf Gregor VII., 2 vols., Elberfeld, 1868-69; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, iv. 851-893; B. Jungmann, Dissertationes selectæ in Hist. eccl., iv. 242 sqq., Ratisbon, 1880; J. Langan, Geschichte der römischen Kirche, pp. 532 sqq., Bonn, 1892; Milman, Latin Christianity, iii. 321-353; W. Martens, Die Besetzung des Päpstlichen Stuhles unter den Kaisern Heinrich III. und Heinrich IV., Freiburg, 1886; C. Fetzer, Voruntersuchungen zu einer Geschichte Alexanders II., Strasburg, 1887; Hauck, KD, iii. (1906) 704-753. Alexander III. (Roland Bandinelli): Pope 1159-81. He was born at Sienna and lectured in canon law at Bologna, leaving a memorial of this part of his career in the Summa Magistri Rolandi, a commentary on the Decretum of Gratian. Eugenius III. brought him to Rome about 1150, and made him a cardinal. In 1153 he became papal chancellor, and during the reign of Adrian IV. was the moving spirit of the antiimperial party among the cardinals, who advocated a close alliance with William of Sicily. His determined opposition to Frederick Barbarossa led to a deep personal enmity on the emperor's part, which was not appeased when Roland appeared at the Diet of Besançon in 1157 as papal legate, and boldly proclaimed that the emperor held his lordship from the pope. Adrian IV. died Sept. 1, 1159. Six days later all the cardinals but three (some say nine) voted for Roland as his successor, and he was consecrated Sept. 20. The minority chose the imperialist cardinal Octavian, who assumed the title of Victor IV. Frederick, naturally disposed toward his own partizan, called a council at Pavia which, as was to be expected, declared Octavian the lawful pope (Feb. 11, 1160), and two days later proclaimed Alexander an enemy of the empire and a schismatic. Alexander answered from Anagni on Mar. 24 by excommunicating the emperor and absolving his subjects from their allegiance; the antipope had been excommunicated a week after Alexander's consecration. Alexander had not the power to carry his hostility further. It is true that in Oct., 1160, at a council at Toulouse, the kings of England and France and the bishops of both countries declared for him; and Spain, Ireland, and Norway followed their lead. But he was unable to maintain a foothold in Italy. By the end of 1161 he was forced to leave Rome, and in the following March fled across the Alps to take refuge in France. The conflict might have come to an end with the death of Victor IV. at Lucca in Apr., 1164, had not Reginald, archbishop of Cologne, the imperial representative in Italy, without either the emperor's sanction or a regard for canonical forms, set up another antipope, Guido, bishop of Crema, under the title of Paschal III. In the diet held at Würzburg at Pentecost, 1165, Reginald (possessed by the conception of a German national Church independent of every one but the emperor) talked Frederick and the magnates into the irrevocable step of taking an oath never to recognize Alexander III. or any pope chosen from his party, and to support Paschal III. with all their power. But on the whole Alexander's cause was gaining. In the autumn of 1165 he left France, and by Nov. 23 he was able to reenter Rome. A year later, Frederick crossed the Alps to unseat him, and by the following summer was able to take possession of St. Peter's and install Paschal there. Alexander fled once more, but Frederick's triumph was short-lived. The plague robbed him of several thousand soldiers and drove him from Rome; in December the principal Lombard cities formed a league against the oppressive dominion of the empire, and found a protector in Alexander, in whose honor they named the new city of Alessandria; finally the antipope died (Sept. 20, 1168). The Roman partizans of Frederick, without waiting for instructions, set up a new pope in the person of John, cardinal-bishop of Albano, under the name of Calixtus III. But Frederick was weary of the strife, and hardly five months had passed before he was negotiating with Alexander. Nothing resulted, however, and the emperor took up arms once more against the pope and the Lombard League; but the battle of Legnano (May 29, 1176) was so decisively against him that he was obliged to yield on any terms. He began fresh negotiations with Alexander at Anagni in October; and at Venice the disputed matters were discussed also with the cities, as well as with William II. of Sicily and the Eastern emperor, both of whom had joined Frederick's opponents. Peace was made Aug. 1, 1177, the emperor acknowledging Alexander's title and abandoning Calixtus, who was to receive an abbey in compensation. Both sides agreed to restore whatever possessions they had taken from each other. A still greater triumph was won by Alexander over Henry II. of England. From 1163 onward the English king was involved in a more and more acute contest with Rome, growing out of his difficulties with Thomas Becket. He demanded the deposition of the archbishop, and, on the pope's refusal, opened negotiations with Frederick, and was represented at the Diet of Würzburg, with a view to supporting Reginald of Cologne's far-reaching plans. But threats of excommunication and interdict brought him back to an apparently peaceful attitude. The murder of Becket (Dec. 29, 1170) brought things to a crisis. The king was forced to do humiliating penance at Becket's tomb and to submit wholly to the papal demands. The culminating point of Alexander's success was marked by the Third Lateran Council (Mar., 1179). Besides approving the crusade against the Cathari of southern France, which had been inaugurated by Raymond of Toulouse with the support of Louis VII., the pope's friend and protector, the 300 bishops of this brilliant assembly passed an important canon regulating papal elections, which confined the electoral power to the cardinals, excluding the lower clergy and the laity and making no mention of imperial confirmation, and required a two-thirds vote to elect. In spite of his apparently complete triumph over his enemies, Alexander never really conquered the Roman people. Soon after the close of the council they drove him once more into exile; and a month after Calixtus III. had formally renounced his pretensions, a new antipope was set up, who took the name of Innocent III. Alexander succeeded in vanquishing this rival, but never returned to Rome, and died at Civita Castellana Aug. 30, 1181, his corpse being followed to its sepulcher in the Lateran by cries of implacable hostility from the populace. His letters are in MPL, cc.; his Summa was edited by F. Thaner (Innsbruck, 1874), and his Sententiæ by A. M. Gietl (Freiburg, 1891). (A. Hauck). Bibliography: Liber pontificalis, ed. Duchesne, ii. 397-446, Paris, 1892; Gesta Alexandri III., in Bouquet, Recueil, xv. 744-977; Jaffé, Regesta, ii. 145 sqq., 761; M. Watterich, Romanorum pontificum . . . vitæ, ii. 377-451, Leipsic, 1862; K. L. Ring, Friedrich I. im Kampf gegen Alexander III., Stuttgart, 1838; Bower, Popes, ii. 502; H. Reuter, Geschichte Alexanders III. und der Kirche seiner Zeit, 3 vols., 2d ed., Leipsic, 1860-64; P. Scheffer-Boichorst, Kaiser Friedrichs I. letzter Streit mit der Kurie, Berlin, 1866; J. Langen, Geschichte der römischen Kirche, pp. 439 sqq., Bonn, 1893; Milman, Latin Christianity, iv. 288-438; G. Wolfram, Friedrich I. und das Wormser Concordat, Marburg, 1883; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, v. 571-722; J. R. Green, History of the English People, vol. i., London, 1888-92; A. M. Gietl, Die Sentenzen Rolands, nachmals Papstes Alexander III., Freiburg, 1891; Hauck, KD, iv. 227-302. Alexander IV. (Rinaldo de Conti): Pope 1254-61. He was made a cardinal-deacon in 1227 by his uncle, Gregory IX., and in 1231 cardinal-bishop of Ostia. As a cardinal, he does not seem to have been strongly anti-imperialistic, and Frederick II. is found in 1233 and 1242 writing in a tone of friendship to him. On the death of Innocent IV. (Dec.13, 1254), Alexander was elected to succeed him, and at once began to follow the policy of his predecessors. Conrad IV., on his death-bed, had commended to the guardianship of the Church his two-year-old son Conradin, heir to the duchy of Swabia and the kingdoms of Jerusalem and Sicily. Alexander accepted the charge with the most benevolent promises, but less than two weeks later he demanded that the Swabian nobles should desert Conradin for Alfonso of Castile. On Mar. 25, 1255, he excommunicated Manfred, Conradin's uncle, who had undertaken to defend the kingdom of Sicily in the child's name, and on Apr. 9 he concluded an alliance with Henry III. of England, on whose son Edmund he bestowed Sicily and Apulia, to be held as papal fiefs. When some of the German princes talked in 1254 of setting up Ottocar of Bohemia as a claimant of the throne in opposition to William of Holland, the papal protégé, he forbade them to take any steps for the election of a king in William's lifetime; and when William died, he forbade the archbishops of Cologne, Treves, and Mainz to place Conradin on the throne of his father. In the contest for the crown which now arose between Alfonso X. of Castile and Richard of Cornwall, brother of Henry III. of England, the pope, whose support was asked by both, took the side of the latter, promising him (Apr. 30, 1259) not merely the support of his legates in Germany, but holding out hopes of the imperial crown. In this he was influenced by the English king's money, which was necessary to him in his contest against Manfred. In Aug., 1258, on a rumor of the death of Conradin, Manfred himself assumed the crown of Sicily, and was recognized in northern and central Italy as the head of the Ghibelline party. After the decisive victory of Montaperto had put Florence, the Guelph bulwark, in Manfred's power, Alexander excommunicated every one who should help him in any way, and laid all his dominions under an interdict (Nov. 18, 1260). This was all he could do, since an appeal to the kings of England and Norway to undertake a crusade against Manfred, and a demand for a tenth of the income of the French clergy for the same purpose had both proved unsuccessful. Alexander had better luck against the notorious Ezzelino da Romano, son-in-law of Frederick II. and leader of the Ghibellines in northern Italy. An army raised by the pope for a crusade against this monster had accomplished little, but finally in 1259 he succumbed to a combination of princes and cities. In Rome, however, the party of Manfred was gaining strength, and in 1261 he was elected to the highest office in the gift of the people, that of senator. How terribly Italy suffered from the demoralization which followed this relentless warfare is evident from the spread of the Flagellants (See [223]Flagellation, Flagellants), whose fanatical processions took place even in Rome (1260). A council was called to meet at Viterbo for the purpose of setting on foot a crusade against the Tatars, but before it convened Alexander died in that city (May 25, 1261). (A. Hauck). Bibliography: Bouret de la Roncière, Les Registres d'Alexandre IV., parts 1-4, Paris, 1895 sqq.; MGH, Epist. sæculi xiii., iii. (1894) 314-473, 729-730, and Leg, iv., 1896; W. H. Bliss, Calendar of Entries in the Papal Registers relating to Great Britain and Ireland, Papal Letters, i. 309-376, London, 1893; A. Potthast, Regesta, ii. 1286 sqq., Berlin, 1875; C. J. de Cherner, Histoire de la lutte des papeset des empereurs de la maison de Souabe, Paris, 1858; O. Posse, Analecta vaticana, 1 sqq., 120 sqq., Innsbruck, 1878; G. Digard, La Série des registres pontificaux du treizième siècle, Paris, 1886; E. Engelmann, Der Anspruch der Päpste auf Confirmation und Approbation, 1077-1379, pp. 53 sqq., Breslau, 1886; Bower, Popes, ii. 567-571. Alexander V. (Peter Philargi): Pope 1409-10. He was an orphan boy from Crete, brought up by the Minorites, which order he afterward entered. After traveling in Italy, England, and France, he acquired a name as a teacher of rhetoric in the University of Paris. Later he held a dignified position at the court of Ginn Galeazzo Visconti in Milan, of which see he became archbishop in 1402. Innocent VII. made him a cardinal. In 1408 he was one of those who deserted Gregory XII. with a view to compelling an end of the schism, and in the same year he had invited the pope to the Council of Pisa as a representative of the cardinals. After both Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. had been deposed, he was unanimously elected pope by the influence of cardinal Balthasar Cossa (July 26, 1409). Like all the other cardinals present, he had signed an agreement that, if he should be elected pope, he would continue the council until the Church had received a thorough reformation in head and members; but, once crowned as pope, he dismissed the members to their dioceses, there to take counsel on the points which needed reform. The schism was not ended by his election; Benedict XIII. was still recognized by Spain, Portugal, and Scotland; Gregory XII., by Naples, Hungary, the king of the Romans, and some other German princes. The greater part of Germany; with England and France, declared for the choice of the council, as well as the reforming leaders Gerson and Pierre d'Ailly. Alexander was more concerned with the recovery of the States of the Church than with reform. Rome and Umbria were in the possession of Ladislaus of Naples, the protector of Gregory XII. Alexander excommunicated him, declared his crown forfeit, and transferred it to Louis II. of Anjou, who, with Cardinal Cossa, commanded the force sent against Rome. Though this expedition was unsuccessful, Alexander's adherents succeeded in the last few days of 1409 in getting the upper hand in the city. Alexander, however, did not return, but remained in Bologna, a pliant instrument in the hands of his Franciscan brethren and Balthasar Cossa. The friars induced him to issue a bull (Oct. 12, 1409), which confirmed all the extensive privileges of the mendicant orders in the confessional and practically crippled the jurisdiction of the parish priests. When he indicated his intention of extending this ruling to France, the University of Paris, with Gerson at its head, threatened to retaliate by excluding the friars from the platform and pulpit. Alexander died before this ultimatum reached Rome (May 3, 1410). By modern Roman Catholic historians, as the creation of the illegitimate council of Pisa, he is not considered strictly a lawful pope, though included in their lists. (A. Hauck). Bibliography: Vita, in L. A. Muratori, Rer. Ital. script., iii. 2, p. 842, Milan; Bower, Popes, iii. 167-171; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vi. 1033; Creighton, Papacy, i. 257-265 (the best); Pastor, Popes, i. 190-191 (from the Roman Catholic side). Alexander VI. (Rodrigo Lanzol): Pope 1492-1503. He was born at Xativa, near Valencia, in 1430 or 1431 and was adopted by his uncle, Calixtus III., into the Borgia family and endowed with rich ecclesiastical benefices. In 1455 he became apostolic notary; in 1456, a cardinal-deacon; and in 1457, vice-chancellor of the Roman curia. He held also the bishoprics of Valencia, Porto, and Cartagena. These positions brought in vast wealth, which he spent in ostentatious luxury and riotous living. A glimpse of his life at this period is afforded by a letter of Pius II. (June 11, 1460), reproaching him for his participation in an indescribable orgy at Sienna, and rebuking him for having no thought but pleasure. At least seven--possibly nine--children were born to him as cardinal, four of whom, Giovanni, Cesare, Gioffrè, and Lucrezia, the offspring of his favorite mistress Vanozza Catanei, were the objects of his special love. On the death of Innocent VIII. he reached the height of his ambition by his election to the papacy (Aug. 11, 1492), won, it was generally believed, by simony and other corrupt practises. Alexander was unquestionably a man of great gifts, able, eloquent, versatile, strong in mind as in body; but all these gifts were defiled by the immorality of his life, which was in no respect different as pope from what it had been as cardinal. So much may be safely said, even if certain specific accusations made by his contemporaries, such as that of incest with his daughter Lucrezia, are shown to be calumnies. The remonstrances of secular powers like Spain and Portugal against the immorality of the papal court were as vain as the denunciations of Savonarola. The former were put off with promises; the latter's mouth was stopped by excommunication (May 12, 1497), when he was endeavoring to arouse all Italy against the papacy. Alexander's main aim, outside of the gratification of his passions, was the elevation of his children to power and wealth. While still a cardinal, he had obtained the Spanish duchy of Gandia for his eldest son, Pedro Luis, who was succeeded, on his early death, by Giovanni. Alexander invested the latter with the duchy of Benevento, together with Terracina and Preticorvo; but a few days later (June 14, 1497) he was mysteriously murdered. For a moment the pope was shocked into penitence, and talked of a reform of his court and even of abdication, but no lasting change resulted. The making of a brilliant match for Lucrezia was long an important factor in his policy. The first connection attempted was with the Sforza family. Lodovico il Moro, governor of Milan for his nephew Giangaleazzo, desired the sovereignty for himself, but was hindered by the grandfather of Giangaleazzo's wife, Ferdinand of Naples. To get the better of him, Lodovico planned a league into which the Pope should be drawn by a marriage between Lucrezia and Giovanni Sforza of Pesaro. The league was founded April 25, 1493, and included, besides Lodovico and Alexander, Venice, Sienna, Ferrara, and Mantua. Ferdinand, however, succeeded in detaching the pope from this alliance, probably through the influence of Spain, and married the natural daughter of his son Alfonso to Gioffre, Alexander's fourth son. The alliance with Naples, however, brought the pope into difficulties. Lodovico, deserted, summoned Charles VIII. of France to take the crown of Naples for himself and try a simoniacal pope at the bar of a general council. Charles descended into Italy in autumn, 1494, and on the last day of the year, Alexander being unable to oppose him, made a magnificent public entry into Rome. The pope agreed to allow his army free passage toward Naples, and to reinstate the cardinals of the opposition faction. In return Charles paid him all the outward signs of homage, and continued his journey toward Naples, where he was able to be crowned on May 12, Alfonso II. having fled. Alexander, however, joined the league founded at Venice (March 31) to drive him out of Italy and to support the house of Aragon in reconquering Naples. In return Alexander asked the hand of Carlotta, Princess of Naples, for his son Cesare, whom he had made archbishop of Valencia immediately after his own elevation and cardinal a year later. It was necessary to divorce Lucrezia from her husband Giovanni Sforza and marry her to a natural son of Alfonso II., the Duke of Bisceglia, which was accomplished in 1498. Cesare's marriage fell through, however; and, after resigning as cardinal, he married Charlotte d'Albret, sister of the King of Navarre, being made Duke of Valentinois by Louis XII., who received in return permission to divorce his wife. Cesare went on with designs for an extensive temporal lordship by fair means and foul. The ruling families of the Romagna having been expelled or assassinated, Alexander gave him the title of Duke of Romagna in 1501. The hatred of father and son for the house of Aragon went further. Lucrezia's second husband was murdered by Cesare's orders in 1500; and a year later Alexander joined the league of Louis XII. and Ferdinand of Spain for the division of the kingdom of Naples between them. The years 1502 and 1503 mark the height of this dominion founded on blood. Alexander was already thinking of asking the emperor for Pisa, Sienna, and Lucca for his son and making him king of Romagna and the Marches, when death cut short his plans, through an attack of malarial fever (Aug. 18, 1503). Of what his contemporaries thought Alexander capable may be seen from the story, long believed, that he was the victim of poison prepared by his orders for one of the cardinals whose estates he coveted. In recent years Alexander has been regarded by some as an unselfish pioneer of the unification of Italy, and attempts have even been made to represent him as a true follower of Christ; but his unworthiness is generally admitted, even by Roman Catholic writers. (A. Hauck). Bibliography: Creighton, Papacy, iv. 183-end, v. 1-57 (very full, valuable appendices of documents); Pastor, Popes, v. 375-523, vi. 1-180 (the Romanist side, with appendices of documents); A. Gordon, The Lives of Pope Alexander VI. and . . . Cæsar Borgia, 2 vols., London, 1729 (has appendix of documents); Bower, Popes, iii. 259-277; J. Fave, Études critiques sur l'histoire d'Alexandre VI., St. Brienc, 1859; M. J. H. Ollivier, Le Pape Alexandre VI., Paris, 1870; F. Gregorovius, Lucrezia Borgia, 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1875, Eng. transl., London, 1904; Kaiser, Der vielverlsumdete Alexander VI., Ratisbon, 1877; V. Nemec, Papst Alexander VI., Klagenfurt, 1879; J. Burchard, Diarium sive rerum urbanarum commentarii, 3 vols., Paris, 1883-85 (consult Index); Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, viii. 300; C. G. Robertson, Cæsar Borgia, London, 1891; Ranke, Popes, i. 35-36; F. Corvo, Chronicles of the House of Borgia, New York, 1901. On Lucrezia Borgia consult F. Gregorovius, Lucretia Borgia, ib. 1903. Alexander VII. (Fabio Chigi): Pope 1655-67. He was nuncio in Cologne from 1639 to 1651, and took part in the negotiations which led up to the peace of Westphalia, but declared that he would enter into no communications with heretics, and protested against the validity of the treaties of Münster and Osnabrück. Innocent X. took a similar view, and on his return from Germany he made Chigi cardinal and finally secretary of state. It was due to the influence of Chigi that Innocent condemned the famous five propositions alleged to have been extracted from the Augustinus of Jansen. Innocent died Jan. 7, 1655, and a strong party in the conclave favored Chigi as one who would be likely to be free from the reproach of nepotism; but, though Spain supported him, the opposition of France (Mazarin had been for years his personal enemy) delayed the election until Apr. 7. Alexander VII. had the satisfaction of seeing the daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, Christina of Sweden, enter the Church, though her prolonged residence in Rome became a burden to him later. He was a consistent supporter of the Jesuits, whom he succeeded in restoring to Venice, from which city they had been excluded since the conflict with Paul V. He took their side wholly in the struggle with the Jansenists (see [224]Jansen, Cornelius, Jansenism). He became embroiled with Louis XIV., first through the refusal of the French ambassador in Rome, the Duke of Créqui, to pay certain conventional civilities to the relatives of the pope, and then through an attack on the ambassador's servants and palace made by the Corsican guards of the pope. Louis was already displeased with Alexander for his consistent support of Cardinal de Retz against Mazarin, and for his retention, in spite of Louis's intercession in their behalf, of certain possessions to which the Farnese and Este families laid claim. In such a mood he took up the Corsican affair hotly, and wrote to Alexander of a breach of the law of nations, a crime whose parallel could hardly be found among barbarians. The papal nuncio was obliged to leave Paris, and French troops occupied Avignon and the Comtat Venaissin and threatened to invade the Italian states of the Church. Alexander, unable to find any allies, saw himself compelled to accede to the most humiliating demands of France in the treaty of Pisa (1664). He was obliged not only, by a special mission of two cardinals to Paris, to beg the king's pardon, but also that of the Duke de Créqui, and to erect a pyramid in a public place in Rome, with an inscription declaring the Corsicans incapable of serving the Holy See. Since Alexander, like his predecessor, was closely allied with Spain, he was obliged to carry Innocent's policy still further when a struggle with Portugal arose. Innocent had refused to recognize Portugal as an independent monarchy when in 1640 it broke away from Spain under the house of Braganza; and had declined to confirm the bishops nominated by King John IV. Alexander took the same course in regard to the bishops; the king accordingly allowed the bishoprics to remain vacant, and divided their estates and revenues among his courtiers, even thinking at one time of the extreme measure of an absolute breach with Rome and the establishment of a national Church, whose bishops should need confirmation from no one but the metropolitan. The conflict was finally settled by Clement IX. in 1669. Much as he had had to do with affairs of state before his elevation to the papacy, Alexander found them wearisome, and left their administration as much as possible to the congregation of cardinals entrusted with their consideration. He was a cultured friend of literature and philosophy, and took much pleasure in his intercourse with learned men, among whom Pallavicini, the historian of the Council of Trent, was conspicuous. He tried his own hand at literature; a collection of his verses, under the title Philometi labores juveniles appeared in Paris in 1656. He died May 22, 1667. (A. Hauck). Bibliography: Ranke, Popes, ii. 33 sqq.; J. Bargrave, Pope Alexander VIII. and the College of Cardinals, in Publications of the Camden Society, xcii., London, 1867; R. Chautelause, Le Cardinal de Retz et ses missions diplomatiques à Rome, Paris, 1879; A. Gézier, Les Dernières Années du Cardinal de Retz, Paris, 1879; A. Reumont, Fabio Chigi in Deutschland, Aachen, 1885; Gérin, L'Ambassade de Crequy à Rome et le traité de Pise, 1662-1664, in Revue des questions historiques, xxviii. (1893) 570; Bower, Popes, iii. 331-332. Alexander VIII. (Pietro Ottoboni): Pope 1689-91. He came of a Venetian family, was made cardinal by Innocent X., and, later, Bishop of Brescia and datarius apostolicus. When Innocent XI. died (Aug. 11, 1689), much depended on the choice of his successor, both for Louis XIV. and for the League of Augsburg, formed to oppose him. His ambassador, the Duke de Chaulnes, succeeded on Oct. 6 in accomplishing the election of Cardinal Ottoboni. Louis, whom the coalition had placed in a critical situation, believed that he would find the new pope more complaisant in some disputed points than his predecessor had been. He attempted to conciliate the curia by restoring Avignon, and abandoned the right of extraterritorial immunity which he had so stubbornly claimed for the palace of his ambassador in Rome. Alexander showed a friendly spirit, and made the Bishop of Beauvais a cardinal. The coalition urged the pope neither directly nor indirectly to approve the four articles of the "Gallican liberties" of 1682, on which the strife had turned between the king and the clergy of his party, on one side, and Rome, on the other. Alexander might have been willing to confirm the bishops whom Louis had nominated in return for their part in bringing about this declaration, if they would avail themselves of the pretext that they defended the articles only in their private capacity. Louis rejected this accommodation, and the pope condemned the declaration and dispensed the clergy from the oath they had taken to uphold it. Alexander made his name memorable in Rome by many benefits to the city, and showed his love for learning by the purchase for the Vatican library of the rich collection of Christina of Sweden. He is reproached, however, for yielding completely to the inroads of nepotism, which his predecessors had driven out. He died Feb. 1, 1691. (A. Hauck). Bibliography: Gérin Pape Alexandre VIII. et Louis XIV. d'après documents inédits, Paris, 1878; Petrucelli della Gattina, Histoire diplomatique des conclaves, iii. 213, Paris, 1865; A. Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, iii. 2, 639, Berlin, 1870; Bower, Popes, iii. 334-335; Ranke, Popes, ii. 424. iii. 461. Alexander, Patriarch of Alexandria ALEXANDER: Patriarch of Alexandria 313-328. See [225]Arianism, I., 1. Alexander Balas ALEXANDER BALAS. See [226]Seleucidæ. Alexander of Hales ALEXANDER OF HALES (Halensis or Alensis, Halesius or Alesius; called Doctor Irrefragabilis and Theologorum Monarcha): Scholastic theologian; b. at Hales, Gloucestershire, England; d. in Paris Aug. 21, 1245. He was educated in the monastery at Hales, studied and lectured at Paris, and acquired great fame as a teacher in theology, and entered the order of St. Francis in 1222. His Summa universæ theologiæ (first printed at Venice, 1475) was undertaken at the request of Innocent IV., and received his approbation. It was finished by Alexander's scholars after his death. It is an independent work giving a triple series of authorities--those who say yes, those who say no, and then the reconciliation or judgment. The authorities are chosen not only from the Bible and the Fathers, but also among Greek, Latin, and Arabic poets and philosophers, and later theologians. It treats in its first part the doctrines of God and his attributes; in its second, those of creation and sin; in its third, those of redemption and atonement; and, in its fourth and last, those of the sacraments. Among the doctrines which were specially developed and, so to speak, fixed by Alexander of Hales, are those of the thesaurus supererogationis perfectorum, of the character indelibilis of baptism, confirmation, ordination, etc. Bibliography: J. B. Hauréau, De la philosophie scolastique, vol. i., Paris, 1850; A. Stöckl, Geschichte der Philosophie, vol. ii., Mainz, 1865; A. Neander, Christian Church; iv. 420-519; J. E. Erdmann, Geschichte der Philosophie, i. 133, 431, Berlin, 1877, Eng. transl., 3 vols., London, 1893; Moeller, Christian Church, 328, 414, 428. Alexander of Hierapolis ALEXANDER OF HIERAPOLIS, h?i´´e-rap´O-lis: Bishop of Hierapolis and metropolitan of the province Euphratensis. He was prominent at the third ecumenical council (Ephesus, 431) as a fierce opponent of Cyril and leader of the left wing of the Antiochians. He persisted in his opposition even after the more moderate had acknowledged the orthodoxy of Cyril, and, in consequence, was finally deposed and banished to Famothis in Egypt. Suidas ascribes to him a treatise: "What Did Christ Bring New into the World?" G. Krüger. Bibliography: Mansi, Concilia, iv. 1330-31, v. 851-965 (letters from him or to him or concerning him); Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, ii., Eng. transl., vol. iii. passim; DCB, i. 83-85. Alexander Jannæus ALEXANDER JANNÆUS. See [227]Hasmoneans. Alexander of Lycopolis ALEXANDER OF LYCOPOLIS, l?i-kep´O-lis or lic´´?p´O-lis: Alleged author of a work against the doctrines of the Manicheans, written in Greek, probably about 300. He was therefore contemporary with the first apostles of Manicheism in Egypt. Photius (Contra Manichæos, i. 11) calls him bishop of Lycopolis (in the Thebaid), but the work (which is an important source for the Manichean system) does not even justify the inference that the writer was a Christian, and nothing is known of his life. The work was published by F. Combefis in his Auctarium novissimum, ii. (Paris, 1672) 3-21, and is reprinted in MPG, xviii. 409-448. It has been edited, with a good introduction, by A. Brinkmann (Leipsic, 1895); Eng. transl. in ANF, vi. 239-253. G. Krüger. Alexander Nevski, Saint ALEXANDER NEVSKI, SAINT: A saint of the Eastern Church; b. at Vladimir (110 m. e. by n. of Moscow) 1218; d. at Goroditch (360 m. s.e. of Moscow) Nov. 14, 1263. He was the second son of Grand Duke Jaroslav II. of Novgorod. In 1240 he defeated the Swedes on the Neva, whence his title, "Nevski." Two years later he repelled the Livonians, who had the support of Rome. The popes of the time were making great efforts to bring about a union with the Eastern Church, and, to further their plans, they tried to induce Alexander and Prince Daniel of Galitch to undertake a crusade against the Tatars. Innocent IV. addressed letters to Alexander (Jan. 23 and Sept. 15, 1248), urging him strenuously to submit to the Roman see, to which the duke and his advisers replied: "We know what the Old and New Testaments say, and we are also acquainted with the teaching of the Church of Constantine and from the first to the seventh council; but your teaching we do not accept." Nevertheless, Innocent and his successor, Alexander IV., pursued their plans and appointed a legate for Russia, hoping that Roman bishoprics might in the course of time be established there. Grand Duke Alexander defended his Church as ably as he did his country. He won the favor of the Tatar khans, and in 1261 a bishopric was established at Sarai on the lower Volga, the residence of the Khan of the Golden Horde. Alexander died on one of his many journeys thither. He was canonized by the Church and the day of his burial (Nov. 23) was consecrated to him. His remains were transferred on Aug. 30, 1724, to the Alexander Nevski monastery in St. Petersburg, which had been founded by Peter the Great in 1711 on the supposed scene of Alexander's victory over the Swedes in 1240. Richard Hausmann. Alexander Severus ALEXANDER SEVERUS (Marcus Aurelius Alexander Severus): Roman emperor 222-235; b. at Arce in Phenicia, most probably 205; murdered by the army, probably near Mainz, at the beginning of a campaign against the Germans in Gaul, Mar., 235. He was a noble character, conscientious, almost scrupulous, meek, and well inclined toward all gods and men. The religious policy which he inherited was one of electicism and syncretism. Alexander and his two immediate predecessors--Caracalla, 211-217, son and successor of [228]Septimius Severus, and Elagabalus, 218-222, reputed son and successor of Caracalla--may be called the Syrian emperors. They were much influenced by Julia Domna, wife of Septimius and daughter of a priest of the sun at Emesa; Julia Mæsa, her sister; and the two daughters of the latter, Soæmias, mother of Elagabalus, and Julia Mamæa, mother of Alexander. About these women gathered a circle of philosophers and scholars who took a deep interest in religious questions. There was naturally here no inclination to the Roman religion and the claims of Christianity were, in part at least, recognized. There was a disposition to attempt to revive heathenism by importing the good in the new religion. [229]Elagabalus had sought to unite the religions of the empire, but in fantastic manner, aiming to make all gods subordinate to the sun-god of Emesa, whose priest he was. Alexander continued his syncretism in nobler fashion. He was susceptible to all good and had respect for all religions. The image of Christ stood in his lararium with those of Orpheus, Abraham, and Apollonius of Tyana, and he is said to have wished to erect in Rome a temple to Jesus. The Christian ethics also attracted him, he often quoted the precept "what ye will not that others do to you, that do not ye to them" and had it inscribed on public buildings. Mamæa was even more favorable to Christianity; Eusebius (Hist. eccl., vi. 21) calls her "a most pious woman, if there ever was one, and of religious life," but the assertion that she was a Christian (first made by Orosius, vii. 18) is unfounded. That the Church had peace under Alexander, as under his predecessors, was the natural consequence of his training and his character. Lampridius says expressly that Alexander "suffered the Christians to exist," and Firmilian, bishop of Cæsarea in Cappadocia, in a letter to Cyprian (Epist., lxxv. [lxxiv.]), written about 256, speaks of "the long peace." To be sure, individuals may have been brought to trial here and there, but the later accounts which make Alexander a cruel persecutor under whom thousands of Christians suffered death are false, and the reputed martyrdoms under him, as of the Roman bishops Callistus and Urbanus and of St. Cecilia, are unhistoric. (A. Hauck). Bibliography: Original sources are: Dion Cassias, Hist. Rom., lxxiv., lxxvi., lxxx.; Ælius Lampridius, Alexander Severus, best in M. Nisard, Suétone, pp. 453-482, Paris, 1883; Eusebius, Hist. eccl., v. 26, vi. 1; NPNF, 2d series, i. 246, 249. Consult: G. Uhlhorn, Der Kampf des Christentums, pp. 284 sqq., Stuttgart, 1875; B. Aubé, Les Chrétiens dans l'empire romain, pp. 53 sqq., Paris, 1881; J. Reville, La Religion à Rome sous les Sévères, ib. 1885; P. Allard, Histoire des persécutions . . . du iii. siècle, pp. 79 sqq., 171 sqq., ib. 1886; W. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, iii. 802-804, London. 1890; Neander, Christian Church, i. 125-127 et passim; Schaff, Christian Church, ii. 58-59; Moeller, Christian Church, i. 191, 195. Alexander, Archibald ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD: Presbyterian clergyman, and first professor in the Princeton Theological Seminary; b. about 7 m. e. of Lexington, in Augusta (later Rockbridge) County, Virginia, Apr. 17, 1772; d. at Princeton Oct. 22, 1851. He received as good schooling as the place and time afforded, including attendance from the age of ten at the Liberty Hall Academy of the Rev. William Graham, near Lexington. He was converted in the great revival of 1789, studied theology with Mr. Graham, was licensed in 1791 and ordained in 1794, and became president of Hampden Sydney College 1796, and pastor of the Third Presbyterian Church (Pine Street), Philadelphia, 1806. In 1812 he was entrusted by the General Assembly with the organization of the Princeton Theological Seminary. For the first year he taught all departments, but as other professors were added he confined himself to pastoral and polemic theology. His chief books were: A Brief Outline of the Evidences of the Christian Religion (Princeton, 1825); The Canon of the Old and New Testaments Ascertained (1826); A Pocket Dictionary of the Bible (Philadelphia, 1829); Biographical Sketches of the Founder and Principal Alumni of the Log College (Princeton, 1845); and Outlines of Moral Science (New York, 1852). Bibliography: J. W. Alexander, Life of Archibald Alexander, New York, 1854. Alexander, Charles McCallon ALEXANDER, CHARLES McCALLON: Revivalist; b. at Meadow, Tenn., Oct. 24, 1867. He was educated at Maryville College, Maryville, Tenn., but left in 1887 without taking a degree, and, after being musical director for a time in the same institution, prepared himself for evangelistic work at the Moody Bible Institute, Chicago, having already been singing associate of the Quaker evangelist John Kittrell for three months. During a part of the period of study in the Moody Bible Institute he was choirmaster of the Moody Sunday-school, and in 1893 was associated with Dwight L. Moody in the revival services connected with the World's Fair at Chicago. From 1894 to 1901 he was singing associate of the revivalist Milan B. Williams, working in Iowa for the first five years and in other parts of the United States during the remainder of the time. At the conclusion of this period Mr. Williams went for a short visit to Palestine, and in the interval Alexander was asked by Rev. Dr. R. A. Torrey to accompany him to Australia. They began their work in 1902, and for six months traveled throughout Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, after which they conducted a revival for six weeks in Madura, Madras, Calcutta, Bombay, and Benares. They then went to England, where they remained from 1902 to 1904, and in 1905-06 conducted successful revival services in Canada and the United States. In regard to the Bible Mr. Alexander takes the most conservative position, for he declares that he "believes in the absolute reliability of every statement" in it. He has issued Revival Songs (Melbourne, 1901); Revival Hymns (London, 1903); and Revival Hymns (another collection; Chicago, 1906). Bibliography: G. T. B. Davis, Torrey and Alexander, Chicago, 1905. Alexander, George ALEXANDER, GEORGE: Presbyterian; b. at West Charlton , N. Y., Oct. 12, 1843. He received his education at Union College and Princeton Theological Seminary (1870). He was pastor of the East Avenue Presbyterian Church, Schenectady, N. Y., from 1870 to 1884, and in the following year was called to the University Place Church, New York City, where he has since remained. While at Schenectady, he was likewise professor of rhetoric and logic at Union College in 1877-83. He is president of the Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions and of the board of trustees of São Paulo College, Brazil, as well as of the New York College of Dentistry. He is also vice-president of the Council of New York University, a trustee of Union College, and a director of Princeton Theological Seminary. Alexander, Gross ALEXANDER, GROSS: Methodist Episcopalian; b. at Scottsville, Ky., June 1, 1852. He was educated at the University of Louisville (B.A., 1871) and Drew Theological Seminary (B.D., 1877), after having been a tutor at the University of Louisville in 1871-73 and professor of classics at Warren College, Ky., in 1873-75. He held successive pastorates in New York State (1875-77) and Kentucky (1877-84), and from 1885 to 1902 was professor of New Testament exegesis in Vanderbilt University. Since the latter year he has been presiding elder of Louisville. He was also a secretary of the general conferences held at Memphis (1894), Baltimore (1898), and Dallas (1902), and has written, in addition to numerous briefer contributions, Life of S. P. Holcombe (Louisville, 1888); History of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South (New York, 1894); The Beginnings of Methodism in the South (Nashville, 1897); and The Son of Man: Studies in His Life and Teaching (1899), besides editing Homilies of Chrysostom on Galatians and Ephesians (New York, 1890). In 1906 he became editor of The Methodist Quarterly Review. Alexander, James Waddell ALEXANDER, JAMES WADDELL: Presbyterian; b. near Gordonsville, Louisa County, Virginia, Mar. 13, 1804, eldest son of [230]Archibald Alexander; d. at Red Sweet Springs, Virginia, July 31, 1859. He was graduated at Princeton in 1820, studied theology there and served as tutor, was licensed in 1824, and was pastor in Virginia till 1828, when he became pastor at Trenton, N. J. He was editor of The Presbyterian, Philadelphia (1832), professor of rhetoric and belles-lettres at Princeton (1833), pastor of Duane Street Presbyterian Church, New York (1844), professor of ecclesiastical history at Princeton Seminary (1849), recalled to his old church in New York, now reorganized as the Fifth Avenue Church (1851). Perhaps the best known of his writings were the Plain Words to a Young Communicant (New York, 1854) and Thoughts on Preaching (1864). Some of his translations of German hymns (such as Gerhardt's O Sacred Head now Wounded), first published in Schaff's Deutsche Kirchenfreund, have passed into many hymn-books. Bibliography: Forty Years' Familiar Letters of James W. Alexander, ed. Rev. John Hall of Trenton, 2 vols., New York, 1860. Alexander, Joseph Addison ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON: American Presbyterian; b. at Philadelphia Apr. 24,1809, third son of [231]Archibald Alexander; d. at Princeton, N. J., Jan. 28, 1860. He was graduated at Princeton in 1826; became adjunct professor of ancient languages and literature there in 1830; studied and traveled in Europe in 1833 and 1834; on his return to America, became adjunct professor of Oriental and Biblical literature in Princeton Seminary. He was transferred to the chair of church history in 1851 and to that of New Testament literature in 1859. He was a remarkable linguist, assisted in preparing the first American edition of Donnegan's Greek lexicon (Boston, 1840), and did much to introduce German theological learning into America. He wrote commentaries on Isaiah (2 vols., New York, 1846-47; ed. John Eadie, Glasgow, 1875) and the Psalms (3 vols., ib. 1850); with Prof. Charles Hodge he planned a series of popular commentaries on the books of the New Testament, of which he himself contributed those on the Acts (2 vols., 1857), Mark (1858), and Matthew. The last-cited was published posthumously (1861), as well as two volumes of sermons (1860) and Notes on New Testament Literature (2 vols., 1861). Bibliography: H. C. Alexander, Life of J. A. Alexander, 2 vols., New York, 1869. Alexander, William ALEXANDER, WILLIAM: 1. Anglican archbishop of Armagh and primate of all Ireland; b. at Londonderry, Ireland, Apr.13,1824. He was educated at Tunbridge School and Exeter and Brasenose Colleges, Oxford (B.A., 1854). After his graduation he was successively curate of Derry Cathedral and rector of Termonamongan, Upper Fahan, and Camus-Juxta-Mourne (all in the diocese of Derry), while in 1863 he was appointed dean of Emly. Four years later he was consecrated bishop of Derry and Raphoe, and in 1896 was elevated to the archbishopric of Armagh and the primacy of all Ireland. He was select preacher to the University of Oxford in 1870-71 and Bampton Lecturer in 1876. He has written Leading Ideas of the Gospels (Oxford sermons, London, 1872); The Witness of the Psalms to Christ and Christianity (1877); commentaries on Colossians, Thessalonians, Philemon, and the Johannine Epistles, in The Speaker's Commentary (1881); The Great Question and Other Sermons (1885); St. Augustine's Holiday and Other Poems (1886); Discourses on the Epistles of St. John (1889); Verbum Crueie (1892); Primary Convictions (1893); and The Divinity of Our Lord (1886). 2. American Presbyterian; b. near Shirleysburg, Pa., Dec. 18, 1831; d. at San Anselmo, Cal., June 29, 1906. He was educated at Lafayette College and Jefferson College (B.A., 1858), and at Princeton Theological Seminary (1861). He was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in 1862 and was pastor at Lycoming Church, Williamsport, Pa., in 1862-63. From 1863 to 1865 he was president of Carroll College and stated supply at Waukesha, Wis., and then held successive pastorates at Beloit, Wis. (1865-69) and San José, Cal. (1869-71). From 1871 to 1874 he was president of the City College, San Francisco, in addition to holding the professorship of New Testament Greek and exegesis in the San Francisco Theological Seminary, of which he was one of the founders in 1871. From 1876 until his death he was professor of church history in the latter institution. He was a member of the committee to revise the Westminster Confession of Faith in 1890-93 and was one of the editors of the Presbyterian and Reformed Review (now the Princeton Theological Review). In addition to a number of contributions of minor importance, he prepared the commentaries on the